Research Methodology

Step 3 The formulation of objectives:

-Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. -They inform a reader what you want to attain through the study. -It is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically.

Step 3 The formulation of objectives

Objectives should be listed under two headings: a) general objectives b) Specific objectives.

Step 3 The formulation of objectives

a) The general objective: Is an overall statement of your study. To study the epidemiology of heart diseases in Sudan

Step 3 The formulation of objectives

b)The specific-objectives: are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate They are breakdown of the general objective
They should be numerically listed. Wording should clearly, completely and specifically Communicate to your readers your intention. Each objective should contain only one aspect of the Study. Use action oriented words or verbs when writing objectives.

Step 3 The formulation of objectives

1. To measure the prevalence of Heart diseases among Khartoum population Mar 2014 2. To determine the distribution of heart diseases by age and gender in Khartoum population - Mar 2014 3. To identify the risk factors(determinants ) of heart diseases among Khartoum population Mar 2014

Step 3 The formulation of objectives

The specific objectives should be: An easy way to remember the characteristics of a good objective, is the acronym, "SMART." It stands for "Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-Bound." Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic Time-Bound

Step 3 The formulation of objectives

Specific: clear about what is to be done Measurable: you can measure Achievable: able to attain the objectives (knowing the resources and capacities at your disposal); Realistic: able to achieve within the stated time Time bound: stating the time period in which they will each be accomplished

Step 3 The formulation of objectives

The objectives should start with words such as to determine, to identify, to ascertain, to measure, to explore etc.

4. Decide on the methodology:

a. Study design b. Study population c. Sampling d. Data collection

4. Decide on the methodology:

a. Study designs: 1. Descriptive studies: Just describes the situation regarding a specific subject it includes only one group of study population

4. Decide on the methodology:

a. Study designs: 2. Analytical studies: Conducted to detect if a relationship exists between two factors ( smoking and lung cancer) It includes two groups of study population (a study group and a control group)

4. Decide on the methodology:

a. Study designs: 2. Analytical studies: Two types: I. Case control studies II. Cohort studies

4. Decide on the methodology:

Study designs: 2. Analytical studies: I. Case-control study: To find out if a relationship exists between lung cancer and smoking You bring two groups:
People with lung cancer (study group) People without lung cancer (control group)

You ask both groups about smoking history If you find that smoking is more prevalent among the study group this indicates a relationship

4. Decide on the methodology:

Study designs: 2. Analytical studies: II. Cohort study: To find out if a relationship exists between lung cancer and smoking You bring two groups:
A group of smokers (study group) A group of non-smokers (control group)

you follow them over time, if more people from the smokers group developed cancer then there is a relation

4. Decide on the methodology:

a. Study designs: 3. Interventional (experimental )studies: Here the researcher does an intervention to see its impact on a specific factor The effect of giving chemotherapy on lung cancer You bring a group of lung cancer patients and you divide them into two groups:
Group receiving chemotherapy (Experimental group) Group not receiving treatment ( control group)

If you find that the cure rate is more among the experimental group then chemotherapy is effective in treating ca lung

4. Decide on the methodology:

a. Study designs: How to select the right study design for your study? Look at your research question Is malaria parasite resistant to chloroquine? Is there an association (relationship) between diet and heart diseases? What is the effect of giving vitamin A to children?

4. Decide on the methodology:

b. Study population: Is the population from which you will collect the data (source of data) It could be people, hospitals, water samples, blood samples, schools, patient records at hospitals

4. Decide on the methodology:

b. Study population: You should defined your study population clearly Eligibility /inclusion criteria : the criteria for inclusion in the research Exclusion criteria : the criteria for exclusion from the study

4. Decide on the methodology:

b. Study population: For the chloroquine resistance malaria research study: Inclusion criteria:
Male or female All age groups With positive malaria blood film Living in KRT for at least one month

Exclusion criteria
People with cerebral malaria People who received other type of malaria treatment

4. Decide on the methodology:

c. Sampling: Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by taking a sample A Sample is a segment of the population selected to represent the population as a whole.

4. Decide on the methodology:

d. Data collection The definition of a variable: A characteristic that can be measured and capable of taking on different values They are the questions that we use to collect data They are derived from the specific objectives

4. Decide on the methodology:

d. Data collection Specific objectives: 1. To identify the age and sex distribution of 1st year students IUA- 2014 Variable 1: age Variable 2: sex 2. To measure the average weight of 1st year students IUA- 2014 Variable : weight

4. Decide on the methodology:

d. Data collection: The variable Age is measured by a question: What is your age? .. years I will have 100 different answers from you : these are the data Age take different value for each student

4. Decide on the methodology

d. Data collection: The variable sex is measured by a question: What is your sex? 1. male 2. female I will have 100 different answers from you : these are the data

4. Decide on the methodology

d. Data collection: The variable weight is measured by a weighing scale: Student weight: .. kg I will have 100 different weights from you : these are the data

4. Decide on the methodology:

d. Data collection There are two types of data: 1. Primary Data collected for the purpose of a specific research 2. Secondary Datathose which have already been collected by someone else ( data in patient records at hospitals data collected from you by the registrar office)

4. Decide on the methodology:

Methods of primary data collection: Asking (questioning )method Observation method

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ASKING METHOD : Oral asking/questioning (interview): Individual interview one individual asking one individual using a questionnaire Group interview one individual asking a group of respondents at the same time

4. Decide on the methodology:

Oral asking/questioning (interview): INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS (CONT): Face to face the interviewer and the respondent sitting in one place Through phone, skypeetc

4. Decide on the methodology:

ADVANTAGES OF INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS: Can be used to collect many different kinds of information (you ask questions and observe the respondent at the same time) Quick and low cost. Trained interviewers are can hold the respondents attention and are available to clarify difficult questions. Response rate tends to be higher They can guide interviews, explore issues , and probe as the situation requires.

4. Decide on the methodology:

LIMITATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS : Respondents reluctance to answer questions asked by unknown interviewers about things they consider private (e.g. sexual behaviour). Busy people may not want to take the time may try to help by giving pleasant answers ( if you ask: do you wash your hands regularly , they will say : yes to please you) Interviewers manner of speaking may affect the respondents answers ( respondents may be intimidated )

4. Decide on the methodology:

Group interviews - Focus Group Interviewing It is usually conducted by inviting six to ten people to gather for a few hours with a trained moderator to ask them about specific subject The meeting is held in a pleasant place, and refreshments are served to create a relaxed environment. Comments are recorded through note taking or videotaped

4. Decide on the methodology:

Advantages of focus group discussion Quick ( instead of interviewing 8 respondents separately you group them) Cost less (instead of visiting 8 respondents in their house using transport you group them)

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Drawbacks of focus group discussion: People may be reluctant to discuss some issues in front of other people( what type of food do eat in your house). Interviewer bias ( respondents give answers to please the interviewer, or are intimidated by him/her).

4. Decide on the methodology:

Written questions self administered questionnaire: The questionnaire is given to the respondent to answer it themselves in writing The questionnaire may be distributed :
Directly to the respondents, the respondents answer and handover their questionnaires Through Mail , the respondents answer and send them back Through Email , the respondents answer online or send back through email.

4. Decide on the methodology:

Advantages of self administered questionnaire : Can be used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost per respondent ( you do not have to hire interviewers ). Respondents may give more honest answers to personal questions on a self-administered questionnaire ( sexual behaviour) No interviewer is involved to bias the respondents answers. Convenient for respondents who can answer when they have time

4. Decide on the methodology:

Limitations of self administered questionnaire : No one available to explain questions Take longer to complete than telephone or face-to face interview (respondents answer them at their convenience) Response rate is often very low ( some respondents do not answer questionnaires and send them back)

4. Decide on the methodology:

2. OBSERVATION METHOD: It is the gathering of primary data by investigators own direct observation of relevant people, actions and situations without asking from the respondent. e.g. Ministry of health sends observers posing as patients to health facilities to check on quality of service

4. Decide on the methodology:

Types of Observation: 1. Structured you determine the items you want to observe before hand and write them in a checklist ( e.g. drugs at pharmacy, availability of staff at their stations), 2. Unstructured no items are identified you go and observe every thing and any thing

4. Decide on the methodology

3. Participant Observation you live as part of the population you are observing (e.g. if you are observing the behaviour of village population) 4. Non- participant observation you observe as an outsider 5. Disguised observation the population do not know you are observing them

4. Decide on the methodology

Limitations of observation method: feelings, beliefs and attitudes of people cannot be observed. expensive method

4. Decide on the methodology

Other methods of data collection in medical and health research: 1. Examining people for specific features (symptoms and signs of diseases) 2. Measuring weight, height, mid arm circumference, head circumference 3. Examining samples ( blood, urine, water, food)