Unit 2 Heat and temperature

• 2.1 Definition of Heat and temperature

• 2.2 Temperature scale
• 2.3 Body heat and body temperature
• 2.4 Conduction, convection, radiation
and evaporation
• 2.5 Temperature measurement
• 2.6 Regulation of temperature
 2.1 Definition of Heat and
temperature
• Heat is a form of energy. It is produced by
burning fuels, by human bodies, and by
friction when two surfaces are rubbed
together.
• Temperature is a measure of the tendency
of a body to transfer heat from or to other
bodies.
 2.2 Temperature scale
T(°F) = 9/5 T(°C) + 32
T(°C) = 5/9[T (°F)-32]
T(K) = T(°C) + 273.15

Fahrenheit

Celsius

Kelvin
 2.3 Body heat and body
temperature
• A balance between heat production and heat
loss, which occurs through conduction,
convection, radiation and evaporation.
• Balancing heat production within the body
against heat loss to the surroundings
determines the body temperature.
• Body fat is energy, and it is part of the heat
storage process in our bodies.
Body temperature
 2.4 Conduction, convection,
radiation and evaporation
Conduction
• Heat passes from one molecule to the next
• Occurs most rapidly in solids. Metals are good thermal conductors

• Does not easily pass through thermal

insulators such as glass, wool, plastic,
etc.
• Heat produced by friction passes by
conduction through the skin to
underlying muscle during massage
Convection
• Heat passes by the movement of heated molecules
• Occurs in liquids and gases
• Expansion of the heated gas or liquid increases its volume
and reduces its density. The hot gas or liquid therefore
rises. A stream of heated molecules forms a convection
current
• The movement of hot water in a hot water system and
movement of warm air in a sauna are due to convection
• Natural convection and forced convection:
– Natural convection has fluid flow due to the density difference
between the hot and cold parts of the whole system.
– Forced convection has fluid flow caused by external driving
forces, e.g. a fan.
Radiation
• Heat travels in straight line as heat rays. All hot
objects give out heat rays
• There must be a temperature difference between
the radiator and its surrounding
• Energy is transferred by electromagnetic waves
• Occurs in gases and space
• Dull, dark surfaces in the path of heat rays absorb
them and become hotter. Shiny and light surfaces
reflect heat rays and remain cool
• Nichrome heating element and infra-red heaters
give out radiant heat. heat from the sun reaches the
earth’s atmosphere by radiation.
• the intensity of radiation
emission increases
dramatically with
temperature, and the
spectrum shifts toward
the visible and
ultraviolet parts of the
spectrum as temperature
rises.
•All objects absorb
radiation as well as
radiate it.
•It is the color of the
object that affects its
rate of absorption.
Greenhouse effect
Cooling by evaporation
• a liquid changes to a vapour it requires an additional
quantity of heat energy (latent heat )
• causes a cooling effect on the surface
• Volatile: for a liquid that evaporates quickly, it is easy
for it to take away energy from surface and causes
cooling effect.
• perspiration, when the evaporating sweat helps to
remove heat from the body, thus assisting in the
control of body temperature
• Factors affect the rate of evaporation include:
temperature, wind, surface area, and humidity.
 • Humidity is measured by relative humidity (RH)

actural amount of water vapour in the air

%RH = ×100%
amount of water vapour saturating the air at the same temperature

• For comfort, air should have a %RH between 40 and

50. If it reaches 70, sweat will not evaporate to cool
the body adequately and heat fatigue will cause
headache, tiredness and irritability. High humidity
results in a lowering of oxygen level in the blood.
Yawning then occurs to inject more oxygen into the
blood stream.
example
Calculate the percent relative humidity on a day when the
temperature is 25o C, and the air contains 9.40 g of water
vapor per m3. Given that the saturating water vapor density at
25o C is 23.0 g/m3.
Solution:

9.40 g/m 3
%RH = 3
×100% = 40.9%
23.0 g/m
 2.5 Temperature measurement
• Core temperature (body temperature): the
temperature in the interior. It is maintained
constant. The core temperature is an
indicator of the health of a person.
• Surface temperature: the temperature of
the skin or subcutaneous tissues, varies with
the temperature of the surroundings.
– important factor when discussing heat loss
through sweating (evaporation) from the skin.
Clinical temperature measurement

• Thermometer - a device that detects a

change in temperature. by detecting a
change in the physical property of a sensor
• Measuring sites: an oral cavity, rectum, or
under the armpit by contact measurement or
tympanic membrane (ear drum)
Surface temperature measurement
• indicator for bone fractures and
inflammation
• Thermography - to diagnosis tumors and
breast cancers
• Liquid crystal thermometer
 Core temperature measurement
• Mercury thermometer
– Infection and cross-contamination are its main
disadvantages
• Thermistors - temperature-dependent
electrical resistance
• Thermocouple -
dissimilar materials join to
form junctions.
Temperature difference at
junction causes a voltage
difference.
• Infrared thermometer
– The main advantages of the infrared
thermometer are that it only contacts the ear
canal and not the eardrum (i.e. less infection),
ease of use, and fast response.
– But inaccurate
 2.6 Regulation of Temperature
Thermostat
Regulation of body temperature
• If the body temperature rises above normal, the blood
and temperature sensors in the skin feed back
information to a part of the brain which responds in
two ways.
• First it increases the rate of flow of blood to skin
capillaries, so increasing the rate at which the blood is
cooled.
• Second, sweating starts, producing cooling of the
body by evaporation.
• If the temperature falls below normal, feedback
reduces the blood flow to the skin and no sweating
occurs, and shivering is activated to generate heat in
the muscles.
Feedback and control
• In many kinds of system, all or part of the
output (or information about it) is fed back to
the input and affects the output.
• Feedback is positive if it acts in the same
direction as the input and increases the
output.
• Feedback is negative if it acts in the opposite
direction to the input and reduces the output.
Positive feedback

Negative feedback