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PowerPoint to accompany

Welding
Principles and Practices
Third Edition

Sacks and Bohnart

Shielded Metal Arc Welding Principles


Chapter 11
1
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Objectives
1. List the percentage of usage of SMAW in the industry. 2. Name the components that make up the schematic representation of the shielded metal arc. 3. Know the maximum arc temperature of an SMAW electrode. 4. List the four constant current welding machines.
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Objectives
5. List the common type and uses of constant current welding machines. 6. Name the power supply ratings. 7. Name the characteristics of the four basic types of welding machines. 8. Choose the correct cable size based on the application. 9. List the welders safety equipment.
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Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)


Manual arc welding
Heat for welding generated by electric arc established between flux-covered consumable metal rod (electrode) and work

Called stick electrode welding Combustion and decomposition of electrode creases gaseous shield
Protects electrode tip, weld puddle, arc, and highly heated work from atmospheric contamination
Additional shielding provided by covering of molten slag (flux)
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SMAW

American Welding Society

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Process Capability
Shielded metal arc welding one of most used of various electric arc welding processes
9% 13% 42% 2% SMAW GMAW/FCAW GTAW SAW Others

34%
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SMAW Advantages
Equipment less complex, more portable and less costly Can be done indoors or outdoors, in any location and any position Electrodes available to match properties and strength of most base metals
Not used for welding softer metals Not as efficient in deposition
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SMAW Operating Principles


Sets up electric circuit
Includes welding machine, work, electric cables, electrode holder and electrodes, and a work clamp

Heat of electric arc brings work to be welded and consumable electrode to molten state
Heat intense: as high at 9,000F at center

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Welding Process
Electric arc started by striking work with electrode Heat of arc melts electrode and surface of base metal Tiny globules of molten metal form on tip of electrode and transferred by arc into molten pool on work surface After weld started, arc moved along work
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SMAW Operating Principle

American Welding Society

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Welding Power Sources


Each type of power source has fundamental electrical differences that best suit particular processes Welding machine
Must meet changing arc load and environmental conditions instantly Must deliver exact amount of electric current precisely at right time to welding arc

Available in wide variety of types and sizes


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Welding Power Sources


Also known as power supplies and welding machines Two classifications
Output slope
Whether constant current or constant voltage

Power source type


Transformer Transformer-rectifier Inverter Generator
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Type of Output Slope


Two basic types
Constant current
Referred to as variable voltage

Constant voltage
Referred to as constant potential

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Output Slope
Relationship between output voltage and output current (amperage) of machine as current increased or decreased
Also called volt-ampere characteristic or curve

Largely determines how much welding current will change for given change in load voltage
Permits welding machine to control welding heat and maintain stable arc
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Output Slope
Indicates type and amount of electric current designed to produce Each arc welding process has characteristic output slope
SMAW and GTAW require steep output slope from constant current welding machine GMAW and FCAW require relatively flat output slope from constant voltage power source Submerged arc welding adaptable to either slop
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Typical Output Slopes

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Four Types of Power Source


Engine-driven generators
Powered by gas or diesel combustion engine Can be found with a.c. or d.c. electric motor
No longer being manufactured and rarely found

Transformer-rectifiers
Use basic electrical transformer to step down a.c. line power voltage to a.c. welding voltage Welding voltage then passed through rectifier to convert a.c. output to d.c. welding current May be either d.c. or a.c.-d.c. machines
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Four Types of Power Source


A.C. transformers
Used to step down a.c. line power voltage to a.c. welding voltage

Inverters
Increases frequency of incoming primary power Constant current, constant voltage, or both

Produce a.c. or d.c. welding current

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Power Sources
Important to select right power source for each job Table 11-1 "Common types and uses of arc welding machines" should be studied Study of job indicates whether a.c. or d.c.
Shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding must use constant current machine Gas metal arc prefers constant voltage machine
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Constant Current Welding Machines


Used for shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding
Current remains fairly constant regardless of changes in arc length Called drooping voltage, variable voltage, or droopers
Load voltage decreases as welding current increases

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Constant Current Output Slope


Constant current welding machines
Steep output slope Available in both d.c. and a.c. welding current

Steeper the slope, the smaller current change Enables welder to control welding current in specific range by changing length of arc

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Constant Current Output Slope


Some jobs require steep volt-ampere curve
Other jobs use less steep volt-ampere curve

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Open Circuit Voltage


Voltage generated by welding machine when no welding being done
Machine running idle

Arc voltage
Voltage generated between electrode and work during welding

Load voltage
Voltage at output terminals of welding machine when arc is going Combination of arc voltage plus voltage drop in welding circuit
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Open Circuit and Arc Voltage


Open circuit voltage runs between 50-100 volts
Drops to arc voltage when arc struck

Arc voltages
Range: 36 volts (long arc) to 18 volts (short arc) Determined by arc length held by welder and type of electrode used

Arc lengthened, arc voltage increases and current decreases


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Open Circuit and Arc Voltage


Open circuit voltage on constant current machines higher than on most constant voltage machines Arc voltage depends on physical arc length at point of welding and controlled by welder
Shielded metal arc welding Gas Tungsten arc welding

Arc voltage much lower than open circuit voltage


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Motor Generator Welding Machines


Usually supply only direct current
Can be made to supply a.c.

Most constant current type

Used chiefly for shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding

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Motor-Generator Welding Machine


Sturdy steel lifting eye Large voltmeter Calibrated dial for easy, fine adjustment of heat and relation between voltage and current Outer wheel and dial for selecting desired welding range Stop button
Hobart Brothers Co.

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Motor-Generator Welding Machine


Ground cable connector Optional steel guard Pressed steel bearing cap

Heavy-duty ball bearings Arc welded copper squirrel cage rotor


Motor stator Heavy steel fan
Hobart Brothers Co.

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Motor-Generator Welding Machine


Steel frame Fourpole "Multi-Range" generator Heavy-duty metallic graphite brushes Large commutator Heavy-duty ball bearings Pressed steel bearing cap
Hobart Brothers Co.

Arc welded steel frame


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Motor-Generator Welding Machine


Removable steel covers Heavy-duty single unit steel shaft Welding cable connector

Polarity switch Large ammeter


Steel turret top with removable cover

Hobart Brothers Co.

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Motor Generator Welding Machine for SMAW


Variable voltage control
Instruction on the Name-plate

Polarity switch Constant voltage


The Lincoln Co.

Toggle switch Current control


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External Construction of d.c. Motor Generator Welding Machine

The Lincoln Electric Co.

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Internal Construction of a D.C. Motor Generator Welding Machine

The Lincoln Electric Co.

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Motor Generator Desirable Characteristics


Have forceful penetrating arc Versatile
Can be used to weld all metals that are weldable by arc process

Flexible
With proper electrode, can be used in all positions

Durable and have long machine life

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Generators
Classified by type of motor that drives generator Consists of a.c. motor, d.c. generator, and exciter built on single shaft Generators used in the field
Miller Electric Mfg. Co. The Lincoln Electric Co.

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Sizes
Determined on basis of amperage Range
100-ampere rated for home 1,500 ampere rated for use with automatic submerged arc welding equipment

Manual welding machine idle sometimes Automatic power supply units 100% duty cycle
Should not be used at or beyond max over extended period
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Maintenance
Contacts of starter switch and control rheostat should be inspected, cleaned frequently and replaced when necessary Brushes need frequent inspection for wear
Check commutator for wear or burning
Rewound and turned on lathe

Main bearings on shaft inspected and greased at each 6-month period


Clean old grease out of bearing housings
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Start and Stop Buttons


Purpose of starting and stopping the motor Start button black Stop button red Important buttons be engaged firmly

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Polarity Switch
Electrode negative and electrode positive used in d.c. welding DCEN (d.c. electrode negative)
Electrode connected to negative terminal of power source and work connected to positive terminal

DCEP (d.c. electrode positive)


Electrode connected to positive terminal of power source and work connected to negative terminal

Switch changes to either electrode positive or electrode negative


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Volt-Ampere Meters
Sometimes serve dual purpose
Can indicate polarity as well as current Others, individual meters for volts and amperes Some, single meter that indicates both volts and amperes
Button engaged to get individual readings Would need second person for monitoring

Increased demand for additional devices so meters have been discontinued by some manufacturers
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Current Controls
Amperage
Quantity of current Determines amount of heat produced at weld

Voltage
Measure of force of current Determines ability to strike an arc and maintain its consistency

Two types of dual control generators


Tapped-step current control Continuously variable current control
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Dual Tapped-Current Control


Coarse adjustment dial selects current range
Called steps or taps Impossible to secure current value between two steps by setting dial between them

Fine adjustment dial trims current between steps


Whether set high or low depends on type and size of electrode, thickness of metal, soft or digging arc required, arc starting, restricting characteristics, and Position of welding
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Dual Continuous Control


Coarse adjustment dial continuously adjusts current Fine dial adjusts both current(amperage) and open circuit voltage
Operator adjusts output slope for given current setting by manipulating both coarse and fine adjustment dials together

Wheel or knob on both amperage and voltage setting devices gives welder continuous control of both
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Engine Driven Generator

Miller Electric Mfg. Co.

Capable of SMAW, GTAW, SMAW, FCAW and PAC.


Miller Electric Mfg. Co.

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Remote Control
Welding machines may be installed in remote part of plant Welder may adjust current without leaving job Timesaving on work
Welder does not have to leave fabrication to readjust current

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Air Filters
Wear in arc welding machines costly
Cost of replacement parts and labor Loss of production due to nonuse of machine

Bearing wear critical


May be reduced through use of air filter fitted on suction end of motor generator machine

Filter cleaned regularly


High pressure air, commercial solvent or steam
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D.C. Transformer-Rectifier Welding Machines


Have many designs and purposes Flexibility one reason for wide acceptance
Deliver either DCEN or DCEP

May be used for:


Stick electrode welding Gas tungsten arc welding Submerged arc welding Multi-operator systems Stud welding

Miller Electric Mfg. Co. The Lincoln Electric Co.

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Transformer-Rectifier Machines
Have two basic parts
Transformer for producing and regulating alternating current that enters machine rectifier that converts a.c. to d.c.

Third important part is ventilating fan


Keeps rectifier from overheating

Design improves arc stability and makes it easy to hold short arc which is soft and steady No major rotating parts so consume little power
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A.C.-D.C. Transformer-Rectifier Welding Machines


Permit welder to select either a.c. or d.c. and electrode negative or electrode positive Switch
Permits welder to use only transformer part of machine for a.c. welding Flipping switch then output current directed through rectifier which converts it to d.c. welding

High frequency arc-starting devices, water/gas flow controls, balance controls for a.c. operation, remote control often built into machine
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A.C.-D.C. Transformer-Rectifier Welding Machines


A 300 amp model shown in use

Miller Electric Mfg. Co.

A 300 amp a.c.-d.c. GTAW/SMAW machine.

The Lincoln Electric Co.

The Lincoln Electric Co.

Portable SMAW/GTAW welding machine


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A.C. Transformer Welding Machines


Most popular a.c. welding machine Function of transformer
Step down high voltage of input current to high amperage, low voltage current required for welding

Especially suited for heavy work

Miller Electric Mfg. Co

The Lincoln Electric Co.

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Advantages of a.c. Power Sources


Reduces tendency to arc blow Can use larger electrodes
Resulting in faster speeds on heavy materials

Lower cost Decreased power consumption High overall electrical efficiency Noiseless operation Reduced maintenance
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D.C. and A.C.-D.C. Inverter Welding Machines


Portable, lightweight, and versatile May be either constant current, constant voltage or both Can perform several different processes

Miller electric Mfg. Co.

The Lincoln Electric Co.

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Cost Comparisons: Arc Power Sources


Three main areas
Cost of purchasing equipment (nearly equal) Operating efficiency
Motor generator machine: 52-65% Transformer-rectifiers: 64-72% Inverters: 85% See Table 11-2 for more comparisons Maintenance Motor generator machine: replacing parts, lubrication Transformer-rectifiers and inverters have no moving parts
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Multiple-Operator Systems
Can be installed away from work site and be connected to control panels close to welding operator When using direct current, all welders must weld with same polarity Most installations are d.c. Power: 600-2,500 amperes Cost less, saves space and cable, lowers operating cost
Miller Electric Mfg. Co.

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Power Supply Ratings


Standards set
The National Electrical manufacturers Association Occupational Safety and Health Administration

Provide guidelines for manufacture and performance of power sources Rated by


Efficiency of output Current output Open circuit voltage Power factor Duty cycle
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Current Output
Rated on basis of current output in amperes Amperage range
200 amperes or less for light or medium work

Over 2,000 amperes for submerged arc welding

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Open Circuit Voltage


Maximum allowable used for manual welding
80 volts for a.c. or a.c.-d.c. machines 100 volts for d.c. machines
Very smooth output (less than 2% ripple)

Automatic machine welding


Some constant current machines rated up to 125 Constant voltage types normally rated from 15 to 50
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Duty Cycle
Percentage of any given 10-minute period that machine can operate at rated current without overheating or breaking down
Rating of 100% means machine can be used at rated amperage on continuous basis
Required by continuous, automatic machine welding

Rating of 60% means machine can be used at its capacity 6 out of every 10 minutes without damage
Satisfactory for heavy SMAW and GTAW
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Efficiency
Relationship of secondary power output to primary power input
Indicated in percent

Determined by losses through machine when actually welding at rated current and voltage Average efficiencies
Motor generator welding machines: 50% Transformer-rectifier: 70% Inverter: 85%
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Power Factor
Measure of how effectively welding machine makes use of a.c. primary line power
Primary power used divided by amount total drawn Expressed in percent

Three-phase d.c. transformer-rectifiers: 75% Single-phase a.c. power units: 55% Welding machines can be purchased with power factor correction
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Power Cable
Conductors of ample capacity and adequately insulated for voltage transmit power Necessary to ground frame of welding machine
Portable cable with extra conductor fastened to machine frame on one end and solid ground on other

Important cable adequately insulated with tough abrasion-resisting insulation


Stand up under rough usage in welding shops
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Electrode and Work Cable


Required to complete electric circuit between welding machine and work
Electrode cable (welding cable) attached to electrode holder Work cable attached to work

Rubber-covered multistrand copper cable generally used


Must have high flexibility
The Lincoln Electric Co.

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Cable Core Construction


Woven of thousands of very fine copper wire
Greater the number of strands the more flexible

Components
A. Wires stranded for extra flexibility B. Paper wrapping around wires allows conductor to slip within robber covering when bent C. Extra strength from open-braided reinforcement of extra cotton cords D. Special composition and curing of heavy rubber covering
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Work Cable
Not necessary to have flexibility of electrode cable See Table 11-3 to help
choose the right size of welding cable Important considerations Amperage of welding machine Distance from work Usually same cable used

Larger cable
Greater the amperage and greater the distance Resistance increases as diameter of cable decreases
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Cable Lugs
Required on both electrode cable and work cable
Soldered or fastened mechanically Connections MUST be tight and secure

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Work Clamps
Variety of structures to be welded; many types of clamps may be used
Copper hook, heavy metal weight, C-clamp Specialized work clamps
Rotary This clamp stops twisting and turning of type welding cable where work rotates. Clamp welded to part, thus permits work clamp to be attached in seconds. It is generally used in fabricating Spring loaded C-clamp tanks, pressure vessels, and on weld positioners.
Lenco dba NLC. Inc. Lenco dba NLC. Inc.

Lenco dba NLC. Inc.

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Quick Connector
Attached to ends of different lengths of cables Allow quick and easy attachment to any length cable

Lenco dba NLC. Inc.

This connector has cam-type action that ensures positive stop and lock and cannot come loose or accidentally fall apart.
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Metal Electrode Holders


Device used for holding electrode mechanically Conveys electric current from welding cable to electrode Insulated handle protects hand from heat Jaws of holder grip electrode at any angle Made of metal with high electrical conductivity and ability to withstand high temperatures
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Lenco dba NLC. Inc.

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Metal Electrode Holders


Jaws can be replaced with new ones Should be light in weight, well-balanced and have comfortable grip Size of holder must be in line with size of welding machine Fully insulated so stays cool even with high duty cycles

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Spring Type Electrode Holder

Lenco dba NLC. Inc.

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Short-stub Electrode Holder


One-ton pressure contact High welding current conductance Special extruded copper-alloy body

Cable connections

Bernard Welding Equipment Co.

Entirely insulated Holds electrodes burned to very short stub. Lifeguard insulation Twist-type locking device permits electrodegripping power in excess of 2,000 pounds.
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Angle-head Electrode Holder

Shorter and lighter than other holders of comparable capacity.

Jackson Products Co.

Available in sizes of 400 and 600 amperes and takes electrodes from 1/16 through 5/16 inch in diameter.
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Other Electric Arc processes


Generates heat for several major welding processes
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)

Arc cutting utilizes much of same equipment as arc welding

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Carbon Arc Welding


Welding heat comes from arc formed between base metal and carbon electrode or arc formed between two carbon electrodes
With or without addition of filler rod

Carbon electrodes available: 1/4, 5/16, 3/8 inch Alternating current: 30-125 amperes Metal electrode holders not suitable
Carbon electrode hotter than metal electrode
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Twin Carbon Electrode Holder


Two leads are required because the arc is created between the two electrodes. Larger than the metal electrode holder Holder is water cooled
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Metal shield to protect welder's hand from intense heat.

The Lincoln Electric Co.

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Atomic-Hydrogen Arc Welding


Process in which electric arc surrounded by atmosphere of hydrogen
Gas shields molten metal from oxidation and contamination from the air Transfers heat from electrode to work Arc formed between two electrodes

Temperature produced by arc: 7,500F Current supplied by a.c. welding transformer Hydrogen supplied in cylinders
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Atomic-Hydrogen Electrode Holder

General Electric Co.

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Atomic-Hydrogen Arc Welding


Metal of same analysis as being welded can be deposited Welds may be heat treated
Unusually smooth, ductile, nonporous and free from impurities Surface free from scale

May weld hard-to-weld metals Advantages: increased production, low operating cost, and low maintenance cost
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Hand and Head Shields


Brilliant light caused by electric arc contains two kinds of invisible rays which injure eyes and skin
Ultraviolet Infrared

Rays affect eyes within 50 feet; and skin any distance within 20 feet Hand shield so person may hold
Fibre-Metal Products Co.

shield in front of face


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Hand and Head Shields


Also called hood or helmet
Attached to adjustable headband
Allows it to be moved up or down as wearer desires

Dependable protection
Both hands free to grasp electrode holder

Partial protection
Must also wear leather or nonflammable cap for adequate protection
Fibre-Metal Products Co. Fibre-Metal Products Co.

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Hand and Head Shields


Constructed of heat-resisting, pressed-fiber insulating material Shields fully molded at top and bottom to protect head and neck Usually black to reduce reflection with window frame to hole protective lens

Fibre-Metal Products Co.

Chrome leather helmets ideal for hard-to-get-into areas. Flip-front welding helmet permits welder to inspect and brush weld without lifting the hood.
Wilson Products

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Head Shield Lens


Sizes: 2 x 4.5 or 4.5 x 5.25 Colored to screen out ultraviolet, infrared rays, and most of visible rays Variety of shades of color
Density depends on brilliance of arc Varies with size of electrode and volume of current

Side exposed to weld pool protected by clear polycarbonate plastic cover lens
Protect costly filter lens from molten metal spatter and breakage (replaced when pitted and clouded)
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Auto-darkening Electronic Filter Helmet


Useful when working close . quarters, doing high production work, or avoiding inadvertent arc strikes Single shade or variable shades Filter can switch from light to dark in less than 1/10,000 of a second Battery powered
May have solar battery booster
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Jackson Products Co.

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Safety Glasses
Should be worn
Also behind hood to prevent severe arc flash reaching eyes

Can Absorb more than 99.9% harmful ultraviolet rays Worn by others who work with welders Light in weight, well ventilated, and comfortable Lenses have light tint (Not dark!) and tented side shields
RobCrandall/The Image Works

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Protective Clothing
Gloves to protect hands
Made of leather or some other type of fire-resistant material

Leather capes, sleeves, shoulder garments with detachable bibs, aprons Split-type apron if sitting down
No place to collect hot particles

High-top shoes
Leggings and spats
Department of Labor

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Protective Clothing
100% cotton or wool Thick enough to prevent injurious untraviolet rays from penetrating to skin Long sleeves Shirts buttoned to neck Shirttails tucked Cuffless pants long enough to cover top of leather boots
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Miller Electric Mfg. Co.

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Protective Clothing

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Further Protection
Ear Protection
Full ear muffs that cover entire ear or ear plugs Dangers
Noise Hot weld spatter or slag entering ear canal

Flume Protection
Always use proper ventilation to keep head out of fume plume
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