Fluid Dynamics

Stream Ecosystems

Fluid Dynamics Lecture Plan

First consider fluids, stress relationships and fluid types Then consider factors affecting fluid flow, flow velocity, and behavior in pipes vs open channels Then understand what controls sediment movement Finally put flow and sediment together to understand relationships to channel form and erosion/deposition in stream systems

Fluids
Substances with no strength Deform when forces are applied Include water and gases Body Forces act on whole or bulk of fluid
Resolve forces within plane of surface of body so forces distributed in plane

Understanding Flow and Sediment Transport

Ability of river to erode and transport sediment represents a balance between driving and resisting forces Flow and resistance equations are at the heart of the discussion

Understanding Flow and Sediment Transport

Conservation Relations
Water Mass (aka Continuity) Momentum (aka Newtons 2nd Law F=MA) Energy

Constitutive Relations
Flow Resistance (Manning Equation) Sediment Transport (Shields, Hjulstrom, Bagnold)

Pressure and Shear

Shear () - exertedto surface Shear () = F/A Pressure exerted to surface = F/A

Stress and Strain

Shear () = F/A

Shear Stress deforms block Deformation = Strain Strain proportional to

du dy

= velocity gradient

Viscosity
Measure of internal friction of fluid particles
Molecular cohesiveness Resistance fluid has to shear (or flow)

Dynamic viscosity = = shear stress/rate of change of with time

= velocity gradient

du / dy
= Shear Stress

du dy

Kinematic Viscosity
v
= viscosity = density

Viscosity constant at given T; doesnt depend on type of shearing stress or duration of stress Newtonian Fluid T Kinematic viscosity determines extent to which fluid flow exhibits turbulence

Types of Fluid Flow

Laminar Flow flow persists as unidirectional movement
Molecules flow parallel Movement up and down by diffusion

Turbulent Flow highly distorted flow

Large scale flow perpendicular to direction of flow Transfer of movement up and down by macroscale processes

Turbulence = irregular and random component of fluid motion Eddies = highly turbulent water masses

Laminar vs Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow velocity constant at a point over time Turbulence
Most flows = turbulent Slow settling velocity upward motion of water particles Increases effectiveness of fluid in eroding and entraining particles from the bed; but less efficient transport agent Velocity measured at a point over time tends towards an average value; but varies from instant to instant Resists distortion to much greater degree than laminar flow
Apparent viscosity = eddy viscosity

Cross-sectional Measurements of Stream Channels

You will see lots of different variables, terms, and ways of expressing channel characteristics Need to spend a little time understanding what they are so that you can move between and among equations and measurements.

Max Depth (Stage)

Wetted Perimeter Top Width

Mean Depth = Area/Top Width

Hydraulic Radius = A/P

Shear Stress: Laminar vs Turbulent Flow

du dy
Laminar Flow

du ( ) dy
Turbulent Flow

Add apparent viscosity or eddy viscosity () to turbulent flow shear stress equation Turbulence exerts larger shear stress on adjacent fluids than laminar

Reynolds Number

Re = UR/
U = mean flow velocity R = hydraulic radius (A/P) = kinematic viscosity (/)

= UR/
= density = viscosity

Balance between inertial forces (cause turbulence) and viscous forces (suppress turbulence) Laminar: Re < 1000 viscous dominate; shallow depth or low velocity Turbulent: Re >1000 inertial forces dominate; deep or fast flow

Depth vs Hydraulic Radius

Some equations use D (or L) developed in pipes and adopted for open channels In wide, shallow channels, RD so substitution is ok and simplifies equations In deep or incised channels this is not true and errors are introduced

Velocity Profiles and Bed Roughness

In Turbulent Flow laminar/near laminar flow occurs only very near bed
Smooth beds molecular viscous forces dominate in thin layer close to bed boundary
Viscous sublayer / laminar sublayer

Rough/Irregular beds
Coarse sand or gravel Viscous sublayer destroyed by particles extending through layer Obstacles generate eddies at boundary of flow

Presence/absence of sublayer important factor in initiating grain movement

Boundary Shear Stress

As fluid flows across bed; stress that opposes motion of the fluid exists at the bed surface Force/unit area parallel to bed Extremely important variable in determining erosion and transport of sediment on the bed F (fluid density, slope of bed, water depth, flow velocity) Boundary Shear Stress tends to increase as velocity increases though in complex ways

Boundary Shear Stress

0 = Rh Sshear stress 0 = Rfluid boundary h S density = hydraulic radius Rh S 0 Rh S = slope (gradient)

= cross-sectional area/wetted perimeter

0 Rh S

= hydraulic radius Rh S

Boundary Shear Stress in Open Channel

Depth-Slope Product
Newtons 2nd Law of Momentum Calculate boundary shear stress of flow moving down channel Adds g for gravitational acceleration to account for weight of water moving along channel length

Boundary Shear Stress

BSS determined by force that flow exerts on bed and related to flow velocity determines erosion and transport of sediment on bed below a flow BSS increases directly with:
fluid density diameter and depth of the stream channel slope of stream bed

Greater ability to erode and transport sediment

Water vs air Larger stream channels vs smaller Higher gradient streams vs lower

Shear Velocity
U* = o/
U* = Shear Velocity o = Boundary Shear Stress

= Fluid Density
Shear stress at bed function of shear velocity (cm/s) In rivers:
U* = gDS D= depth S= slope Assumes steady, uniform flow Average shear velocity of section of channel Warning: D can be a problem better to use R This is still based on flow in pipes

Froude Number

U Fr F F rr gL gL = velocity of shallow water wave

g = gravitational acceleration L = water depth

U Fr = Froude Number U gL flow velocity U = mean

Ratio between inertial and gravity forces Gravity influences way fluid transmits shallow water waves Dimensionless value (like Re)

Froude Number
Fr < 1 Fr > 1 Tranquil, Streaming, Subcritical Rapid, Shooting, Supercritical
Velocity of wave > flow velocity
Waves cannot propagate upstream

Fr has relationship to flow regimes

Defines characteristic bedforms that develop during flow over a bed

Chezy Equation
U = CR/S Velocity directly proportional to square root of RS product where R = A/P; S= Slope Chezy coefficient (C) is a constant of proportionality related to resisting factors in system Equation balances flow velocity with resisting forces associated with bed roughness

Manning Equation

Similar to Chezy Equation Mannings n is presumed to be constant for a given channel framework Mannings n is also called Manning roughness coefficient Need estimate of n for each stream reach Can be controlled by sediment grain size or bedforms controlled by Froude number

Mannings n
Can look up n in tables Can calculate n Can look up values in a photo guide from USGS (Barnes, 1968)

Mannings n Examples

Mannings n Examples