McCain and Obama clash in TV debate Voters have questioned the US presidential hopefuls in a heated debate dominated by the

financial crisis and foreign policy. Two polls taken right after the debate - by CBS News and CNN - judged Barack Obama the winner over John McCain. (from BBC News, 8 October 2008)

McCain and Obama clash in TV debate Voters have questioned the US presidential hopefuls in a heated debate dominated by the financial crisis and foreign policy. Two polls taken right after the debate - by CBS News and CNN - judged Barack Obama the winner over John McCain. (from BBC News, 8 October 2008)

C2. WORD CLASSES OPEN word classes:

Nouns Adjectives Verbs Adverbs

LEXICAL word classes: provide the referential (lexical) meaning of a sentence

CLOSED word classes: Pronouns Prepositions Determiners Conjunctions

GRAMMATICAL word classes: have a structuring (grammatical) function in a sentence

DETERMINERS: grammatical words that accompany nouns

1. IDENTIFIERS: a. Definite articles (the) b. Indefinite articles (a/an) c. Possessive identifiers (my, our, your, his, her, its, our, their) d. demonstrative identifiers (this/ these, that/those)

2. QUANTIFIERS:

a. Numerals (one, two, etc./first, second, etc.) b. Indefinite Quantifiers (some, few, several, plenty, etc.

DEFINITION of words and word classes: 1. Semantic (notional) definition: meaning 2. Morphological definition: form 3. Syntactic definition: function within a sentence.

A2. Activity 2

NOUNS kangaroo, emptiness, tooth, baptism, hostility, pleasure, disturbance, skiing Semantic definition: the name of a person, place or thing.

Morphological definition:

1. INFLECTION: Most nouns have singular and plural (except mass or uncountable nouns)

2. Some nouns are derived from adjectives or verbs.

DERIVATION in nouns: derivational endings (suffixes) added to verbs or adjectives (a) -ness (v) -ism (a) -ity (v) -ure (v) -ance (v) -ing empty > emptiness baptise > baptism hostile > hostility please > pleasure disturb > disturbance ski > skiing

A2. Activity 3 There was an emperor who was fond of new clothes and spent all his money on them. One day two swindlers arrived and announced that they knew how to manufacture the most beautiful cloth imaginable. The texture and pattern were uncommonly beautiful, and the clothes made from the cloth had a wonderful quality.

NOUNS: emperor, clothes, money, day, swindlers, cloth, texture, pattern, clothes, cloth, quality.

Syntactic definition: 1. Nouns are preceded by determiners. 2. Nouns (and their associated words) occur as Subject or Object in the structure of sentences (or after prepositions).

A2. Activity 4
1. The big dog jumped over the lazy fox.

2. Foxes can be very lazy, even lazier than humans. 3. This fox is the laziest that Ive met, more idle than your younger brother.
4. The fox is an agricultural menace.

ADJECTIVES

Semantic definition: a describing word. Morphological definition:

1. INFLECTION (only in gradable adjectives) lazy > lazier > laziest idle > more idle > the most idle

2. DERIVATION: many adjectives derive from nouns or verbs. Derivational

endings (suffixes) can be added to nouns or verbs. (n) -al (n) -ful (n) -less (n) -ish (v) -able (v) -ible agriculture > agricultural hope > hopeful price > priceless fool > foolish read > readable compress > compressible

Syntactic definition:

Adjectives occur in two positions: 1. Attributive position, before nouns (the lazy fox) 2. Predicative position, after verbs like be and seem (Foxes can be very lazy)

Adjectives can be gradable or non-gradable. Gradable adjectives:

a) can have inflection to form comparative and superlative; b) can be modified by an intensifying adverb (e.g. very).

lazy > lazier > laziest very lazy

Non-gradable adjectives:
a) cannot have inflection to form comparative and superlative;

b) cannot be modified by an intensifying adverb e.g. single, priceless

C.2 Activity 2 Adjectives: Baroque, bitter, cold, communal, explicit, extinct, heavy, laid-back, lateral, thin.

Gradable adjectives: cold > colder > the coldest very cold bitter > more bitter > the most bitter very bitter explicit > more explicit > the most explicit very explicit heavy > heavier > the heaviest very heavy laid-back > more laid-back > the most laid-back very laid-back thin > thinner > the thinnest very thin Non-gradable adjectives: baroque, communal, extinct, lateral

VERBS

see, search, sing, tell, go, have, be, may

Tenses: Present see, sees search, searches sing, sings tell, tells go, goes have, has am, is, are may Past saw searched sang told went had was, were might

VERBS see, search, sing, tell, go, have, be, may Tenses: Present participle seeing searching singing telling going having being ---

Past participle seen searched sung told gone had been ---

VERBS Morphological definition: verbs have INFLECTION (e.g. see, sees, saw, seeing, seen)

Semantic definition: doing words.

B2. Activity 3 1. Barry kicked the ball. 2. Eva shouted encouragements from the sidelines. 3. Then the rain fell. 4. Both players and spectators got wet. 5. The pitch was already muddy. 6. The groundsman wondered about the state of his turf.

ADVERBS 1. accurately, badly, easily, magnificently, patiently, slowly, smoothly, typically, visibly, wildly 2. again, always, ever, just, never, now, often, once, seldom, soon, then, yet 3. close, far, hence, here, near, thence, there, yonder 4. afterwards, backwards, earthwards, forwards, inwards, outwards, upwards 5. furthermore, however, meanwhile, nevertheless, notwithstanding, therefore, thus 6. downright, enough, just, most, pretty, quite, rather, so, very

7. certainly, maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably, surely 8. away, back, far, forth, out; before, behind, below, between, down, in, off, on, over, past, round, through, up

1. a) They end in ly b) they derive from adjectives c) they have a manner meaning. 2. Time adverbs. 3. Place adverbs. 4. a) They end in wards b) they have a direction meaning (except afterwards). 5. Conjunctive adverbs a) they provide links between sentences b) they commonly come towards the beginning of the sentence, and are separated from the rest of it by commas. They can have an additive (e.g. furthermore), contrastive (e.g. however) or resultative (e.g. therefore) link with the previous sentence.

6. Intensifying adverbs, used to modify adjectives and other adverbs. 7. Modal adverbs; they can express possibility (e.g. maybe, perhaps), probability (e.g. probably) and certainty (e.g. certainly, surely). 8. Adverb particles, generally expressing a place meaning. They are used with motion verbs (e.g. Please go through) or to form phrasal verbs (e.g. carry on, put down).

PREPOSITIONS 1. above, across, against, among, behind, below, beyond, down, into, near, off, onto, round, towards, under, up 2. during, for, till 3. after, at, before, between, by, from, in, on, over, through, to, until 4. about, as, by, despite, except, for, like, of, with

1. 2. 3. 4.

Locative meaning (place or direction). Temporal meaning. Locative and temporal meaning. various meanings.

Examples of prepositions: after 1. after six months. 2. after your behaviour tonight, 3. after all my efforts 4. shut the door after you 5. He is after a job 6. enquire after her 7. named him William after the prince 8. a painting after Rubens 9. the best book on the subject after mine 10. after a fashion

Examples of prepositions: in 1. There is a glass in the cupboard. 2. He was a singer in Johns band. 3. I am doing a degree in philosophy. 4. They were dressed in black. 5. Her paintings are made in watercolour. 6. We are going to Italy in April. 7. Dinner will be ready in ten minutes. 8. We sat down in a circle around the campfire. 9. One in ten students travels by train. 10. In refusing to work abroad, she missed an excellent job opportunity.

Meanings of in 1. Contained = positioned inside something, or contained, surrounded or enclosed by something. We hope you will enjoy your in-flight entertainment. New recruits spend six months on our in-house training scheme. That hospital offers very good services for inpatients. We held an in-store survey of customer attitudes.

We held an in-store survey of customer attitudes.

Melissas furniture is in store until she buys a house.

Students never know whats in store for them.

PRETTY The house has four bedrooms so its pretty big. Im pretty sure I recognised her voice. She knows pretty well everything there is to know on the subject. She is so pretty in that dress. You are wearing a pretty hat. BANK I need to go to the bank. The bank has branches all over the country. We sat down on the bank of the river. Can I bank on your support?

PERSONAL PRONOUNS Category distinctions: person, number, gender, case

Subject 1st s I 2nd s you 3rd s/m he 3rd s/f she 3rd s/n it

Object Possessive me mine you yours him his her hers its its

Reflexive myself yourself himself herself itself

1st p 2nd p 3rd p

we us you you they them

ours yours theirs

ourselves yourselves themselves

C2. Activity 2 PRONOUNS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Who likes ice cream? Nobody here does, it seems. Look at this! What is it? Did you find a nice one? That is their final offer. Can you smell anything? Its raining again

Interrogative pronouns: who, what, which, where, etc. Indefinite pronouns: someone, something, nothing, anybody, anyone, anything, etc. Demonstrative pronouns: proximate (this/these) and distant (that/those) one Meteorological it Dummy it

Id like to buy his books. (his: determiner possessive identifier)

These books are his. (his: possessive pronoun)