In Forward bias: Diode is short circuited i.e. ON Ideal diode Rf = 0 Practically Rf value is less.

In Reverse bias: Diode is open circuited i.e. OFF Ideal diode Rr= Practically Rr value is very high.

(a) Input step current to a diode

(b) Diode voltage when the current is large

(c) Diode voltage when the current is small.

The forward recovery time tfr, for specified rise time of I/P current is the time difference between 10% point of diode voltage and the time when this voltage reaches and remains within 10% of final value.

Minority-carrier distribution as a function of the distance x from junction. (a) A reverse biased junction

(b) A forward biased junction

The waveform in (b) is applied to the diode circuit in (a), (c) The excess carrier density at the junction, (d) The diode current, and (e) The diode voltage

The transistor act as a switch, when it is either in cut-off or in saturation region. When both emitter-base & collector-base junction are reverse biased, transistor operates in cut-off region & act as open switch. When both emitter-base & collector-base junction are forward biased, it operates in saturation region & act as closed switch.

ICRL-VCC+VCE=0 VCE=VCC ICRL IC = 0, VCC = VCE then, VCE =0 VCC = ICRL IC = VCC/ RL

When pulse input is given for the transistor then we will find different ON time and OFF time. tON =td + tr tOFF = ts +tf (delay time + rise time) (storage time + fall time)

 The delay time, td : When the base current is applied, the transistor does not switch on instantaneously. Some time delay takes place before the collector current starts flowing. This time gap between the base current application and collector current flow termed as delay time.

Rise time, tr :
Even though the collector current begains to flow,it attains its maximum value IC only after some time delay tr. This delay is termed as rise time. We can define rise time as the time required for collector current to rise from 10% of its maximum level to 90% of its maximum level. Storage time, ts : The time interval between the instant IB = 0 and the instant when IC falls to 90% of its maximum value is termed as storage time. Fall time, tf : The time required for IC to fall from 90% of its maximum value to 10% of its maximum value is termed as fall time.

When trnsistor is in cut in, VB = VBB(R1/R1+R2) + Vi(0) (R2/R1+R2) Vi(0) = V(0) Therefore, (Vi = 0, in cut in)

VB = VBB(R1/R1+R2)

VB< VBE required for transistor, i.e. 0V for Si transistor and -0.1V for Ge

transistor only for cut-off region.

When Vi = V(1), RC = VCC-VCE(sat) IC Current through resistor R1, Current through resistor R2, IB = I1 - I2 IB(min) = IC / hFE(min) I1 = Vi VBE(sat) R1 I2 = VBE(sat) VEE R2

IB = Vi VBE(sat) _ VBE(sat) VEE R1 R2

IC = V(1) VBE(sat) _ VBE(sat) VEE hfe(min) R1 R2

VCC-VCE(sat) = V(1) VBE(sat) _ VBE(sat) VEE RC.hFE(min) R1 R2