F05

Optical Fundamentals
Russ Gyurek rgyurek@cisco.com
2003, 2001, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.
FTTH Conference October 2003
Agenda
Introduction
Safety Optical propagation in Fibers
Attenuation & Dispersion

Non Linearity
SM Optical Fiber Types

Summary, Q&A
2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. FTTH Conference October 2003
Modern Lightwave Eras

10000 1000
Capacity (Gb/s)
100 10 1
Research Systems
Optical networking Wavelength Switching
Commercial Systems
Fiberization Digitization SONET rings and DWDM linear systems
0.1 1985 1990 Year

1995
2000
Some terminology:
Decibels (dB): unit of level (relative measure)
X dB is 10-X/10 in linear dimension e.g. 3 dB Attenuation = 10-.3 = 0.501 Standard logarithmic unit for the ratio of two quantities. In optical fibers, the ratio is power and represents loss or gain.
Decibels-milliwatt (dBm) : Decibel referenced to a milliwatt

X mW is 10log10(X) in dBm, Y dBm is 10Y/10 in mW. 0dBm=1mW, 17dBm = 50mW
Wavelength (): length of a wave in a particular medium. Common unit: nanometers, 10-9m (nm)
300nm (blue) to 700nm (red) is visible. In fiber optics primarily use 850, 1310, & 1550nm
Frequency (): the number of times that a wave is produced within a particular time period. Common unit: TeraHertz, 1012 cycles per second (Thz)
Wavelength x frequency = Speed of light x = C
Some more terminology

Attenuation = Loss of power in dB/km
The extent to which lighting intensity from the source is diminished as it passes through a given length of fiber-optic (FO) cable, tubing or light pipe. This specification determines how well a product transmits light and how much cable can be properly illuminated by a given light source.
Chromatic Dispersion = Spread of light pulse in

The separation of light into its different coloured rays.
ps/nm-km
ITU Grid = Standard set of wavelengths to be used in Fibre Optic communications. Unit Ghz, e.g. 400Ghz, 200Ghz, 100Ghz
Optical Signal to Noise Ration (OSNR) = Ratio of optical signal power to noise power for the receiver
Lambda = Name of Greek Letter used as Wavelength symbol ()
Optical Supervisory Channel (OSC) = Management channel

dB versus dBm
dBm used for output power and receive sensitivity (Absolute Value) dB used for power gain or loss (Relative Value)
2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.
ITU Wavelength Grid

1530.33 nm 195.9 THz
0.80 nm 100 GHz
1553.86 nm
193.0 THz
ITU-T grid is based on 191.7 THz + 100 GHz It is a standard for the lasers in DWDM systems
Freq (THz) 192.90 192.85 192.80 192.75 192.70 192.65 192.60
ITU Ch 29 28 27 26
Wave (nm) 1554.13 1554.54 1554.94 1555.34 1555.75 1556.15 1556.55

Bit Error Rate ( BER)
BER is a key objective of the Optical System Design
Goal is to get from Tx to Rx with a BER < BER threshold of the Rx

BER thresholds are on Data sheets Typical minimum acceptable rate is 10 -12
Optical Budget
Basic Optical Budget = Output Power Input Sensitivity
Pout = +6 dBm R = -30 dBm
Budget = 36 dB
Optical Budget is affected by:

Fiber attenuation Splices Patch Panels/Connectors Optical components (filters, amplifiers, etc) Bends in fiber Contamination (dirt/oil on connectors)
Power Budget with Power Penalties
Fiber Loss +
Splices + Connectors +
Dispersion Penalties +
Fiber Nonlinearities Penalty + Component Aging Penalties < Power Budget = Launch Power Receiver Sensitivity
10
Glass Purity
Fiber Optics Requires Very High Purity Glass

Window Glass Optical Quality Glass Fiber Optics 1 inch (~3 cm) 10 feet (~3 m) 9 miles (~14 km)
Propagation Distance Need to Reduce the Transmitted Light Power by 50% (3 dB)
11
Fiber Fundamentals
Attenuation Dispersion Nonlinearity Distortion It May Be a Digital Signal, but Its Analog Transmission
Transmitted Data Waveform

Waveform After 1000 Km

12
Agenda
Introduction

Non Linearity

Summary, Q&A
13
A Few Words on Optical Safety

Think Optical Safety at ALL Times
Optical Power is INVISIBLE to the Human Eye
NEVER stare at an Optical Connector

Keep Optical Connectors Pointed AWAY FROM YOURSELF AND OTHERS
Glass (Fiber Cable) Can CUT and PUNCTURE
14
Laser Classifications / Safety ICONS

Class 1 Lasers that are incapable of causing damage when the beam is directed into the eye under normal operating conditions. These include helium-neon lasers operating at less than a few microwatts of radiant power. Class 2
SR and IR Optics, some LR
Lasers that can cause harm if viewed directly for second or longer. This includes helium-neon lasers with an output up to 1 mW (milliwatt).
Class 3A
Many LR Optics, CWDM GBICS
Lasers that have outputs less than 5 mW. These lasers can cause injury when the eye is exposed to either the beam or its reflections from mirrors or other shiny surfaces. As an example, laser pointers typically fall into this class.
Class 3B
Some LR Optics, Amplifier Outputs
Lasers that have outputs of 5 to 500 mW. The argon lasers typically used in laser light shows are of this class. Higher power diode lasers (above 5 mW) from optical drives and high performance laser printers also fall into this class. Class 4 Lasers that have outputs exceeding 500 mW. These devices produce a beam that is hazardous directly or from reflection and can produce skin burn. Many ruby, carbon dioxide, and neodymium-glass lasers are class 4.
15
Protective Eyewear Available

Protective goggles or glasses should be worn for all routine use of Class 3B and Class 4 lasers. Remember: Eyewear is wavelength specific, a pair of goggles that effectively blocks red laser light affords no protection for green laser light. Do not use worn or scratched glasses. Inspect at every use! Laser Safety Equipment can be investigated in greater detail at the following link: http://www.lasersafety.co.uk/frhome.html
16
Some Final Words on Optical Equipment Safety

Remember: Optical cabling is constructed from strands of glass, about the size of a human hair. Never handle exposed fiber strands unless you have the proper training. Fiber fragments that become embedded under the skin can be extremely painful, and are very difficult (in some cases impossible) to remove. Remember: Optical equipment is typically powered from either 120vac or 48vdc. Always remove jewelry such as rings, watches, bracelets, etcwhen working with energized equipment. Care should be taken to never come in contact with exposed electrical connections or buswork. Remember: Be careful not to damage equipment through ESD (Electrostatic Discharge). Ensure that all equipment is properly grounded, wrist straps are used when removing modules with active components and always handle equipment modules by their edges. **Note: Many companies have documented ESD guidelines specific to their environment. Please consult those documents for additional detail as appropriate**.
17
Agenda
Introduction

Non Linearity

Summary, Q&A
18
Analog Transmission Effects

Attenuation:
Reduces power level with distance
Dispersion and Nonlinearities:

Erodes clarity with distance and speed
Signal detection and recovery is an analog problem
19
Fiber Geometry
Core Cladding
An optical fiber is made of three sections:

The core carries the light signals The cladding keeps the light in the core The coating protects the glass
Coating
20
Fiber Dimensions
Fiber dimensions are measured in m
1 m = 0.000001 meters (10-6) 1 human hair ~ 50 m
Coating (245 m) Cladding (125 m)
Refractive Index (n)

n = c/v n ~ 1.46 n (core) > n (cladding)
Core (862.5 m)
21
Geometrical Optics
Light is reflected/refracted at an interface

q1 = Angle of incidence q1r = Angle of reflection q2 = Angle of refraction
n2
q2
n1
q1 q1 r
Above qcritical=Sin-1(n2/n1), all light is totally internally reflected
Snells Law q1 = q1r n1Sin q1 = n2Sin q2
22
Propagation in Fiber
n2
q0
n1 q1 Intensity Profile
Cladding
Core
Light propagates by total internal reflections at the core-cladding interface Total internal reflections are lossless
Each allowed ray is a mode
23
Different Types of Fiber

n2
Multimode fiber
Core diameter varies 50 mm for step index 62.5 mm for graded index Bit rate-distance product >500 MHz-km
n1 Core
Cladding
Single-mode fiber
Core diameter is about 9 mm Bit rate-distance product >100 THz-km
n2
n1
Cladding
Core
24
Agenda
Introduction

Non Linearity

Summary, Q&A
25
Optical Spectrum
UV Visible IR 125 GHz/nm
Light
Ultraviolet (UV) Visible Infrared (IR)
850 nm 980 nm 1310 nm
1480 nm 1550 nm 1625 nm
Communication wavelengths
850, 1310, 1550 nm Low-loss wavelengths
Specialty wavelengths
980, 1480, 1625 nm
Wavelength:
(nanometers) Frequency: (terahertz)

C = x
26
Optical Attenuation
Specified in loss per kilometer (dB/km)

0.40 dB/km at 1310 nm 0.25 dB/km at 1550 nm
1550 Window
Loss due to absorption by impurities

1400 nm peak due to OH ions
1310 Window
EDFA optical amplifiers available in 1550 window
27
Optical Attenuation
Pulse amplitude reduction limits how far Attenuation in dB=10xLog(Pi/Po) Power is measured in dBm: P(dBm)=10xlog(P mW/1 mW)
Examples
10dBm 0 dBM -3 dBm -10 dBm -30 dBm 10 mW 1 mW 500 uW 100 uW 1 uW
Pi
T
P0 T
28
Types of Dispersion
Chromatic Dispersion
Different wavelengths travel at different speeds Causes spreading of the light pulse
Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

Single-mode fiber supports two polarization states Fast and slow axes have different group velocities Causes spreading of the light pulse
29
Fiber Chromatic Dispersion Characteristics

Normal Fiber (SMF-28 or Equivalent) Nondispersion Shifted Fiber (NDSF) >95% of Deployed Plant
20
Dispersion ps/nm-km
Wavelength 0 1310 nm 1550nm
Normal(ITU-T G.652) Dispersion Shifted Fiber (DSF) (ITU-T G.653) Nonzero Dispersion Shifted Fibers (NZDSF) (ITU-T G.655)
30
A Snapshot on Chromatic Dispersion
Interference
Affects single channel and DWDM systems
A pulse spreads as it travels down the fiber

Inter-symbol Interference (ISI) leads to performance impairments Degradation depends on:
laser used (spectral width) bit-rate (temporal pulse separation) Different SM types
31
Fiber Chromatic Dispersion (CD)

The refractive index is wavelength dependent Different frequency-components of the optical pulses travel at different speeds (the blue is faster than red for anomalous dispersion where D > 0) As a result, we see pulse broadening and ISI
Red Blue
Transmission Fiber
32
Limitations From Chromatic Dispersion

Dispersion causes pulse distortion, pulse "smearing" effects Higher bit-rates and shorter pulses are less robust to Chromatic Dispersion Limits "how fast and how far
10 Gbps
60 Km SMF-28
t
40 Gbps
4 Km SMF-28
t
33
Combating Chromatic Dispersion
Use DSF and NZDSF fibers

(G.653 & G.655)
Dispersion Compensating Fiber

Transmitters with narrow spectral width
34
Dispersion Compensating Fiber
Dispersion Compensating Fiber:

By joining fibers with CD of opposite signs (polarity) and suitable lengths an average dispersion close to zero can be obtained; the compensating fiber can be several kilometers and the reel can be inserted at any point in the link, at the receiver or at the transmitter
35
Dispersion Compensation Total Dispersion Controlled

Cumulative Dispersion (ps/nm)
+100 0 -100 -200 -300 -400 -500
No Compensation With Compensation
Distance from Transmitter (km) Dispersion Shifted Fiber Cable
Transmitter
Dispersion Compensators
36

Caused by ovality of core due to:
Manufacturing process Internal stress (cabling)
External stress (trucks)
Only discovered in the 90s
Most older fiber is not characterized for PMD

37

Ey
nx
Ex
ny
Spreaded Pulse As It Leaves the Fiber
Pulse As It Enters the Fiber
The optical pulse tends to broaden as it travels down the fiber; this is a much weaker phenomenon than chromatic dispersion and it is of some relevance at bit rates of 10Gb/s or more
38
Combating PMD
Factors contributing to PMD
Bit Rate Fiber core symmetry Environmental factors Bends/stress in fiber Imperfections in fiber
Solutions for PMD

Improved fibers Regeneration Follow manufacturers recommended installation techniques for the fiber cable
39
Agenda
Introduction

Non Linearity

Summary, Q&A
40
From Linear to Non Linear Propagation As long as optical power within an optical fiber is small, the fiber can be treated as a linear medium
Loss and refractive index are independent of the signal power
When optical power levels gets fairly high, the fiber becomes a nonlinear medium
Loss and refractive index depend on the optical power
41
Optical Fibers Nonlinear Index

n = n0 + N2
Index of Nonlinear Light Refraction Coefficient Intensity
Intensity
Optical Pulse
Fast Phase Velocity Slow Phase Velocity
Time
Intensity of an optical pulse modulates the index of refraction Nonlinearity scales as (channel power)2
42
Effects of Nonlinearity
A single channels pulses interact as they travel
Interference
Multiple channels interact as they travel
Interference
43
Types of Nonlinearities
Nonlinear index
Four-wave mixing
FWM
Self-phase modulation
Cross-phase modulation
Stimulated scattering
Raman
Brillouin
Raman
44
Four-Wave Mixing
1 2 Into Fiber
21-2 1
2 22-1
Out of Fiber
Channels beat against each other to form intermodulation products Creates in-band crosstalk that can not be filtered (optically or electrically)
45
FWM Example
Output Spectrum after 25 km of Dispersion Shifted Fiber
-5 -10
Input Power = 3 mw/ch
Power (dBm)
FWM effects increase geometrically with:

Number of channels Spacing of channels Optical power level
-15
-20 -25 -30 -35 -40
1542 1543 1544 1545 1546 1547 1548
Wavelength (nm)
46
FWM and Dispersion

Dispersion Washes Out FWM Effects
0 FWM Efficiency (dB)
D=0
-10 -20 -30
D=0.2 D=2
-40 -50
D=17
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Channel Spacing (nm)

47
Agenda
Introduction

Non Linearity

Summary, Q&A
48
Types of Single-Mode Fiber

SMF (standard, 1310 nm optimized, G.652)
Most widely deployed so far, introduced in 1986, cheapest
DSF (Dispersion Shifted, G.653)

Intended for single channel operation at 1550 nm
NZDSF (Non-Zero Dispersion Shifted, G.655)

LS
For WDM operation in the 1550 nm region only TrueWave, FreeLight, LEAF, TeraLight Latest generation fibers developed in mid 90s For better performance with high capacity DWDM systems Low PMD ULH fibers
49
Fiber Dispersion Characteristics

Normal fiber Non-dispersion shifted fiber (NDSF) G.652 ~95% of deployed plant
25
Dispersion (in ps/nm- km)
20
15
DS
NZDS+
NZDS-
SMF
10
5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 1350 1370 1390 1410 1430 1450 1470 1490 1510 1530 1550 1570 1590 1610 1630 1650
DSF G.653 NZDSF G.655
Wavelength (in nm)

50
Different Solutions for Different Fiber Types

SMF
(G.652)
Good for TDM at 1310 nm

OK for TDM at 1550 OK for DWDM (With Dispersion Mgmt) OK for TDM at 1310 nm Good for TDM at 1550 nm Bad for DWDM (C-Band) OK for TDM at 1310 nm Good for TDM at 1550 nm Good for DWDM (C + L Bands) Good for TDM at 1310 nm OK for TDM at 1550 nm OK for DWDM (With Dispersion Mgmt
DSF (G.653) NZDSF (G.655) Extended Band (G.652.C) (suppressed attenuation in the traditional water peak region)
Good for CWDM (>8 wavelengths)
The primary Difference is in the Chromatic Dispersion Characteristics

51
Agenda
Introduction

Non Linearity

Summary, Q&A
52
53
54
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1999, Cisco Systems, Inc.
55
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Optical Fundamentals

Russ Gyurek rgyurek@cisco.com

2003, 2001, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

FTTH Conference October 2003

Attenuation & Dispersion

SM Optical Fiber Types

Modern Lightwave Eras

Optical networking Wavelength Switching

0.1 1985 1990 Year

Decibels-milliwatt (dBm) : Decibel referenced to a milliwatt

Some more terminology

Chromatic Dispersion = Spread of light pulse in

Optical Supervisory Channel (OSC) = Management channel

2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

FTTH Conference October 2003

ITU Wavelength Grid

1530.33 nm 195.9 THz

0.80 nm 100 GHz

Wave (nm) 1554.13 1554.54 1554.94 1555.34 1555.75 1556.15 1556.55

Bit Error Rate ( BER)

BER is a key objective of the Optical System Design

Goal is to get from Tx to Rx with a BER < BER threshold of the Rx

2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

FTTH Conference October 2003

Optical Budget is affected by:

Power Budget with Power Penalties

2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

FTTH Conference October 2003

Fiber Optics Requires Very High Purity Glass

2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

FTTH Conference October 2003

Transmitted Data Waveform

Waveform After 1000 Km

Attenuation & Dispersion

SM Optical Fiber Types

A Few Words on Optical Safety

Optical Power is INVISIBLE to the Human Eye

NEVER stare at an Optical Connector

Glass (Fiber Cable) Can CUT and PUNCTURE

2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

FTTH Conference October 2003

Laser Classifications / Safety ICONS

SR and IR Optics, some LR

Many LR Optics, CWDM GBICS

Some LR Optics, Amplifier Outputs

Protective Eyewear Available

2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

FTTH Conference October 2003

Some Final Words on Optical Equipment Safety

Attenuation & Dispersion

SM Optical Fiber Types

Analog Transmission Effects

Dispersion and Nonlinearities:

Signal detection and recovery is an analog problem

2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

FTTH Conference October 2003

An optical fiber is made of three sections:

2003, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

FTTH Conference October 2003

Refractive Index (n)

FTTH Conference October 2003

Light is reflected/refracted at an interface

Above qcritical=Sin-1(n2/n1), all light is totally internally reflected