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3 When we say that the temperature of a room is 28C, or a bottle contains 500 cm3 of milk, we are dealing with scalar quantities. On the other hand, a force of 120 N acting downwards is a vector quantity.
120N
4. Time, temperature, mass, volume, distance, density and power are examples of scalar quantities. These quantities can be added using simple mathematical rules.
40W 45 cm3
Displacement, AC
5. Force, velocity, displacement, acceleration and momentum are vector quantities. To find a resultant vector, all vector quantities are either added or subtracted taking into account the magnitude and direction of the individual vector.
Chapter 1
1.4 Measurements
Understanding Measurements
Nature of Measurement 1 Measurements are trials to determine the true value of a particular physical quantity.
Understanding Measurements
2 The difference between the true value of a quantity and the value obtained in measurement is the error.
Actual mass = 60 kg
Weighing machine = 59 kg
Error = 60 - 59 = 1kg
Understanding Measurements
Nature of Measurement 3 No measurement can be absolutely accurate; there will be some sort of error in a measurement.
Thickness of book
Errors in Measurement
1. There are two main types of errors. (a) Systematic errors (b) Random errors
Errors in Measurement
Systematic Errors 1 Systematic errors are cumulative errors that can be compensated for, if the errors are known.
Errors in Measurement
Systematic Errors 2 Systematic errors in measurement result from (a) an incorrect position of the zero point, or known as zero error, and
Errors in Measurement
Systematic Errors 2 Systematic errors in measurement result from (a) an incorrect position of the zero point, or known as zero error, and (b) an incorrect calibration of the measuring instrument.
Errors in Measurement
3 Systematic errors always occur (with the same value) when we continue to use the instrument in the same way.
Errors in Measurement
4 A zero error arises when the measuring instrument does not start from exactly zero.
Errors in Measurement
5 Zero errors are consistently present in every reading of a measurement so that the results obtained may be precise but lack in accuracy.
Errors in Measurement
6. Systematic errors cannot be eliminated by repeating the measurements and averaging out the results. It only can be eliminated or corrected if the measuring instruments are calibrated or adjusted frequently.
Errors in Measurement
Random Errors
1 Random errors occurs due to mistakes made when making measurement either through incorrect positioning of the eye or the instrument. It will produce a different error every time you repeat the experiment. They may vary from observation to observation. You measure the mass of a ring three times using the same balance and get slightly different values: 17.46 g, 17.42 g, 17.44 g
Errors in Measurement
Random Errors 2. Random errors can be minimised by repeating the measurements several times and taking the average or
mean value of the readings. You measure the mass of a ring three times using the same balance and get slightly different values: 17.46 g, 17.42 g, 17.44 g
17.46 17.42 17.44 17.44 g Average/mean = 3
Errors in Measurement
Random Errors 3. A parallax error is an error caused by incorrect positioning of the eye when reading a measurement. Error = + 0.2ml Error = + 0.1ml Error = - 0.1ml
Errors in Measurement
Random Errors 4. If he repeats his reading several times, and takes the average of the results, he will end up with an answer that is closer to the true value; but repeating measurements does nothing at all for the first observer.
Errors in Measurement
Random Errors 5 (a) To avoid parallax errors, the position of the eye must be in line with the reading to be taken, as in position C.
Errors in Measurement
5 (b) To overcome parallax errors in instruments with a scale and pointer, e.g. an ammeter, often have a mirror behind the pointer. The correct reading is obtained by making sure that that the eye is exactly in front of the pointer, so that the reflection of the pointer in the mirror is behind it (refer Figure 1.3).
Errors in Measurement
5 (b)
Eye
Eye
Consistency/Precision 1 The consistency of a measuring instrument is its ability to register the same reading when a measurement is repeated.
Consistency/Precision 2 A set of readings from identical instruments will have a small relative deviation or no deviation from the mean value.
High consistency => Small deviation from the mean value
Big deviation: 54kg, 56kg, 57kg Small deviation: 54kg, 54kg, 55kgPrecise
Consistency/Precision 3 A deviation is the difference between a measured value and its mean value or the average value.
Average reading of diameter = 3.24 cm One of the reading = 3.26 cm
100%
Consistency/Precision
Example 1 The diameter of an object was measured 5 times using vernier caliper. The results are 3.14 cm, 3.15 cm, 3.12 cm, 3.09 cm and 3.05 cm. Calculate the relative deviation.
Diameter/cm
3.14 3.15 3.12 3.09
Deviation/cm
(3.14 3.11) cm = 0.03 cm (3.15 3.11) cm = 0.04 cm (3.12 3.11) cm = 0.01 cm (3.09 3.11) cm = | 0.02 cm| = 0.02 cm (3.05 3.11) cm = | 0.06 cm| = 0.06 cm
3.05
Example 1: Mean deviation = 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.06 5 Relative deviation = =
Average deviation x 100% Average value
= 0.03 cm
0.03 3.11
x 100%
= 0.96%
Consistency/Precision
improved by: (a) eliminating parallax errors during measurement.
Consistency/Precision
improved by: (b) exercising greater care and effort when taking readings.
Consistency/Precision
improved by: (c) using an instrument which is not defective.
Accuracy 1 Accuracy is the degree to which a measurement represents the actual value.
Gravity = 9.81 ms-2 Experimental value A = 9.76 ms-2 B = 9.62 ms-2
9.62
9.76 9.81
Accuracy 2 An accurate instrument is able to give readings close to or almost equal to the actual value of a quantity.
9.62
Accuracy 4 The error is the difference between the measured value and the actual or true value
9.62 A.9.76 9.81
Error A = 0.05
Accuracy 5 The level of accuracy is related to the relative error which is defined as the ratio of the error to the actual value. error value Relative error = x 100% actual value
B.9.62 A.9.76 9.81
Error A = 0.05 Error B = 0.19
R. Error A =
R. Error B =
=0.5%
6 A measured value with a very small error has a high accuracy. If the relative error is of a small value, the level of accuracy is high and vice versa.
=0.5%
Accuracy high
R. Error B =
Accuracy
7 How to improve the accuracy of a measurement? (a) Repeated readings are taken and the average value is calculated.
Accuracy 7 How to improve the accuracy of a measurement? (b) Avoid parallax errors,
Accuracy 7 How to improve the accuracy of a measurement? (c) Avoid zero errors.
Accuracy 7 How to improve the accuracy of a measurement? (d) Use measuring instruments with a higher accuracy. For example, a vernier caliper is more accurate than a ruler.
Sensitivity 1 The sensitivity of a measuring instrument is its ability to detect quickly a small change in the value of a measurement.
Sensitivity 2 A measuring instrument that has a scale with smaller divisions is more sensitive.
Sensitivity
3 As an example, the length of a piece of wire is measured with rulers A and B which have scales graduated in intervals of 0.1 cm and 0.5 cm respectively, as shown in Figure 1.5. Which of the rulers is more sensitive?
Sensitivity
3 Results: Ruler A: Length = 4.8 cm Ruler B: Length = 4.5 cm Ruler A is more sensitive as it can measure to an accuracy of 0.1 cm compared to 0.5 cm for ruler B
4 In addition to the size of the divisions on the scale of the instrument, the design of the instrument has an effect on the sensitivity of the instrument. For example, a thermometer has a higher sensitivity if it can detect small temperature variations. A thermometer with a narrow capillary and a thin-walled bulb has a higher sensitivity.
2 A consistent measuring instrument is not necessarily accurate. For example, a measurement with a metre rule is consistent but not accurate due to end errors. In this respect, this type of instrument gives readings which, however, do not represent the true value of the measured quantity.
3 A sensitive measuring instrument too, may not be accurate or consistent. This is due to external variations which cause variations in the readings.