Chapter 2

Network Models

2.1

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us consider two friends who communicate through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there were no services available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier Hierarchy

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Figure 2.1

Tasks involved in sending a letter

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2-2 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture Peer-to-Peer Processes Encapsulation
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2-2 THE OSI MODEL

Pre-OSI we had the TCP/IP protocols, IBMs Systems Network Architecture (SNA), and Digital Equipments DECNET proprietary model ISO (International Organization for Standardization) recognized a need for an open system standard The OSI model is not compulsory, but a reference model for vendors. Why OSI (Open Systems Interconnect)?
Simplification Specialization Modularity, thus upgradeability Interoperability Standardization

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2-2 THE OSI MODEL

Why Use a Layered Model?
categorize the procedures that are necessary to transmit data across a network. At any time, two computers using the same protocol have an exact, complete understanding of each other. Developing a new protocol without a model would be a tedious and time-consuming task. Reinvent the wheel by recreating work that has already been done Can design, enhance, and test each individual layer. Can have a complete protocol based on a layered model. To update - only modify the one layer that needed updating, rest of the layers would not be affected. Vendors can replace one of the layers with their own version, thereby creating multivendor compatibility.

Protocol : a set of rules of communication.

If use a layered design can separate the processes into specific layers.

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2-2 THE OSI MODEL

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Note
ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.

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2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer Data Link Layer Network Layer Transport Layer Session Layer Presentation Layer Application Layer
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Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

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Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

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Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

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Figure 2.5 Physical layer

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PHYSICAL LAYER
Physical transmission of data across the network (mechanical, electrical, procedural) Components of the physical layer include:
Cabling system components Adapters that connect media to physical interfaces Connector design and pin assignments Hub, repeater, and patch panel specifications Wireless system components Parallel SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) Network Interface Card (NIC)

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Note
The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

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Figure 2.6 Data link layer

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DATA LINK LAYER [1] Common networking components

Network interface cards NICs have a layer 2 or MAC address. Ethernet and Token Ring switches A switch uses the MAC address to filter and forward traffic, helping relieve congestion and collisions on a network segment. Bridges

Works with a devices networking software when sending and receiving messages

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DATA LINK LAYER [2] LLC sublayer

defines how data is packaged for the network: 802.2, 802.3, 802.5 frames, etc. provides error-checking links the Physical layer with the higher layers

MAC sublayer
defines the media access method (pulses, light emissions, waves) provides a unique physical address for the device (MAC address)

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Note
The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.

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Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

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Figure 2.8 Network layer

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NETWORK LAYER
end-to-end logical addressing of data packets
The Internet Protocol (IP) addresses make networks easier to both set up and connect with one another

A packet of data can be routed across several layer 2 networks (Ethernet, Token Ring, etc.). Routing
Routers use the network or subnet portion of the IP addressing to route traffic between different networks. Each router must be configured specifically for the networks or subnets that will be connected to its interfaces. Routers communicate with one another using routing protocols, such as Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), to learn of other networks that are present and to calculate the best way to reach each network based Routers and other networked systems make these routing decisions at the network layer.
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Note
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to the destination host.

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Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

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Figure 2.10 Transport layer

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TRANSPORT LAYER
end-to-end communication between end devices through a network.
Depending on the application, the transport layer offers either reliable, connection-oriented or connectionless, best-effort communications. The most common transport layer protocols are the connectionoriented TCP Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the connectionless UDP User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

Some of the functions offered by the transport layer include:

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Application identification Confirmation that the entire message arrived intact Control of data flow to prevent memory overruns Establishment and maintenance of both ends of virtual circuits Multiplexing or sharing of multiple sessions over a single physical link

Note
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another.

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Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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Figure 2.12 Session layer

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SESSION LAYER Session layer functionality includes:

Virtual connection between application entities Tracking the number of bytes that each end of the session has acknowledged receiving Synchronization of data flow Creation of dialog units Connection parameter negotiations Partitioning of services into functional groups Acknowledgements of data received during a session Retransmission of data if it is not received by a device

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Note
The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

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Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

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PRESENTATION LAYER
Responsible for how an application formats the data to be sent out onto the network. Allows application to understand message. presentation layer functionality :
Encryption and decryption of a message for security Compression and expansion of a message so that it travels efficiently Graphics formatting Content translation System-specific translation

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Note
The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.

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Figure 2.14 Application layer

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APLICATION LAYER
Provides an interface for the end user operating a device connected to a network. Data the user views while using applications (Web browser or e-mail). Application layer functionality include:
Support for file transfers Ability to print on a network Electronic mail Electronic messaging Browsing the World Wide Web

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Note
The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

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Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

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2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-tonetwork, internet, transport, and application. However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical and Data Link Layers Network Layer Transport Layer Application Layer
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Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

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2-5 ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses Logical Addresses Port Addresses Specific Addresses

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Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

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Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

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Example 2.1
In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.

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Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

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Example 2.2
As we will see in Chapter 13, most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

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Example 2.3
Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each connection. In this case, each computer is connected to only one link and therefore has only one pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each connection.

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Figure 2.20 IP addresses

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Example 2.4
Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the Internet. The sending computer is running three processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving computer is running two processes at this time with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer needs to communicate with process j in the receiving computer. Note that although physical addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain the same from the source to destination.

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Figure 2.21 Port addresses

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Note
The physical addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

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Example 2.5
As we will see in Chapter 23, a port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal number as shown.

753
A 16-bit port address represented as one single number.

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Note
The physical addresses change from hop to hop, but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.

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