Session 1.7, Lecture 7, 60 Min.

Power System Characteristics & Control of Voltage

Outline
Major Issues in Voltage Control Overvoltage Issues Harmonic Resonance Circuit Characteristics and Their Voltage Control Implications Voltage Stability Issues

Major Issues in Voltage Control

Energizing large sections may cause overvoltages (Ferranti Rise Phenomenon) High likelihood of sustained and transient overvoltages Energizing small sections tends to prolong restoration Great possibility of system faults Inability to detect and selectively clear faults Voltage instabilities can arise during restoration

Overvoltages of Concern
Sustained overvoltages Switching transients (surges) Harmonic resonance All relative to
Allowable durations Equipment capabilities

Overvoltage Limited Equipment

Transformers:
Exceeding insulation strength (BIL) Over Excitation Harmonic generation Excessive heating

Circuit Breakers:
Higher transient recovery voltage (TVR) Re-Striking Flashover Lower interrupting capacity

Surge Arresters:
Cause operation and prevent reseal Damage arresters
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Sustained Overvoltage is Caused by:

Energizing long high and extra-high voltage lines Inadequate energizing source (e.g. some online generation) High sending end and receiving end impedance Inadequate underlying loads Sending end transformer high tap
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Control of Sustained Overvoltage

Providing sufficient under-excitation on generators: Providing margin to accommodate charging of reenergized lines Maintaining a low voltage profile: Minimize charging currents Inserting shunt reactors and removing shunt capacitors Connecting reactive load and avoiding capacitive load Operate parallel transformer on off-set taps Energize only those lines that are currently needed
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Transient Overvoltage is Cause by:

Switching capacitive elements Energizing long high and extra-high voltage lines They are affected by the point of voltage cycle at which the breaker is colsed

Control of Switching Transients

Maintain steady-state voltages at less than 110% Energize lines or subsystems in small sections

Harmonic Resonance is Caused by:

Un-damped or weakly damped voltage oscillations: Low harmonic resonance between source impedance and line capacitance Effect of switching operation on nonlinear equipment: Transformer saturation excite harmonic currents

10

Control of Harmonic Resonance

Select transformer taps to avoid over-excitation Connect loads at both ends of the lines Connect dead load on transformer to be energized Reduce source impedance by starting more generators Set sending-end taps at lowest position Minimize system capacitance to raise natural frequency

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Overhead Transmission Line Parameters

System Voltage KV 500 345 230 138 69 Charging Currents MVAR/Mile 1.75 0.8 0.25 0.09 0.02 Thermal Rating MW 2,500 1,500 800 220 110 Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) MW 850 375 130 43 11 Thermal to SIL Ratio Ratio 3 4 6 5 10

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Underground Transmission Systems

Voltage range from 69 to 500 KV MVAR per mile about 10 times that of OH Loaded well below Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) Two MW of load per one MVAR of Charging (Based in US Midwest Systems)

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High-Pressure Oil-Filled Pipe-Type Cables

Require forced cooling plants 200 ld/in2 (about 15 Atmospheres) at 40 C Concerns for cooling and pressure drop Failure of pot-head terminators during an outage

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Time Frames
Transient
Generator/Exc. Dynamics Prime mover control LTC

Longer-Term
Load/Transfer Increase Load diversity/thermostat

Induction motor dynamics Mech. Switched Caps/Reactors SVC Inertial Dynamics DC

Max. Exc. Limiter

Line/Trans. Overload Combustion Turbines

Gen Change/AGC Boiler Dynamics DC Converter LTCs Operator Intervention

Protective Relaying including Overload Protection

.1

10 100 Time - Seconds

1,000

10,000
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Dynamic Model of a Generator

o
+ PSS + Vt
EXCITER

V
o t

EFD
TURBO GENERATOR

Vt PG + jQG

o
+

1 R

+ PM
o

GOVERNOR/ TURBINE

PM

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Dynamic and Voltage Impacts on Transfer Capabilities

Transfer capability is strongly dependent on voltage and reactive power Losses are strongly dependent on same Power equipment is limited by physical constraints Power system is limited by voltage and dynamic stability constraints Illustrations
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Illustration ~
V1 = 1.0, 1 = 0 V2 = ?, 2 = ?

-j 10
Load: SL = PL + jQL -PL = 10 V1 V2 sin(2 1) -QL = 10 (V2 ) 2 -10V1 V2 cos(2 1)

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Voltage Profile for 2-Bus System

Transfer Limit and Voltage
1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

Voltage (pu)

0.6

1.2

1.8

2.4

3.6

4.2

4.8

5.4

6.6

7.2

7.8

8.4

Transfer

Max. Transfer at 0.9pu = 7.8

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9.6

Reactive Generation Requirement

Reactive Generation Requirement
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Reactive Power Requirement

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

0. 6

1. 2

1. 8

2. 4

3. 6

4. 2

4. 8

5. 4

6. 6

7. 2

Bus #2 Load (Real Power Transfer)

7. 8

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Transmission Line Is a Big Consumer of Reactive Power!

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Try Reactive Compensation

~
V1 = 1.0, = 0 V2 = ?, 2 = ? 1.0 pu

-j 10
-PL = 10 V1 V2 sin(2 1) -QL = 9 V2 2 - 10V1 V2 cos(2 1) Load: SL = PL + jQL

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Transfer Limit Will Increase

Impact of Capacitive Compensation
1.2

Voltage at Load Bus

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

0.6

1.2

1.8

2.4

3.6

4.2

4.8

5.4

6.6

7.2

7.8

8.4

Bus #2 Load

9.6

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Reactive Generation Plus Capacitive Compensation

Reactive Generation Requirement
10

Reavtive Generation (pu)

8 6 4 2 0

0.6

1.2

1.8

2.4

3.6

4.2

4.8

5.4

6.6

7.2

7.8

-2

Load at Bus #2

8.4

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Impact of Reactive Load

Impact of 0.97 pf at Bus 2
1.2

Voltage at Bus #2

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

0.6

1.2

1.8

2.4

3.6

4.2

4.8

5.4

6.6

7.2

7.8

8.4

Real Load at Bus #2

9.6
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Reactive Generation Requirement w/Reactive Load/No Capacitive Compensation

Reactive Generation Requirement
10

Reactive Generation Requirement

8 6 4 2 0

0.6

1.2

1.8

2.4

3.6

4.2

4.8

5.4

6.6

7.2

7.8

Real Load at Bus #2

8.4
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Add Capacitive Compensation w/Reactive Load at .97 pf

Impact of Capacitive Compensation w/Reactive Load
1.2

Voltage at Bus #2

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

0.6

1.2

1.8

2.4

3.6

4.2

4.8

5.4

6.6

7.2

7.8

8.4

Load at Bus #2

9.6
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Reactive Generation Requirement with and without Reactive Compensation but with Reactive Load (.97 pf)

Reactive Generation w/Reactive Load: Impact of Capacitive Compensation

10

Reactive Generation

8 6 4 2 0

0. 6

1. 2

1. 8

2. 4

3. 6

4. 2

4. 8

5. 4

Load at Bus #2

6. 6

-2

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Observations
Voltage drop is very sensitive to reactive load Key limitation comes from generator limits Capacitive compensation will improve the situation However, with capacitive compensation one may operate closer to the point of collapse.

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Shunt Capacitors
Can be used up to a certain point to extend the VS limit by:
Correcting receiving end power factor Freeing up spinning reactive reserve in generators

However, shunt caps have a number of limitations:

In heavily shunt caps compensated systems, voltage regulation tends to be poor Q generated is proportional to square of V; during low voltage conditions, VAR support drops, thus compounding the problem

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Voltage Stability
Ability of the power system to maintain acceptable voltages at all buses under normal and abnormal conditions Voltage instability occurs when a disturbance, increase in load, or change in system condition causes a progressive and uncontrollable decline in voltage The main factor causing instability is the inability of the power system to meet demand for reactive power It is not to be confused with voltage reductions near the electrical center due to angle instability Voltage collapse is a process by which the sequence of events accompanying voltage instability leads to a low unacceptable voltage profile in a significant part of the system.

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Time Frames for Voltage Instability (CIGR)

Transient voltage instability
0-10 seconds Large disturbance including short circuit

Longer-term voltage instability

0.5 minute tens of minutes Large disturbance or load builup

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Major Voltage Collapse Incidents

French system (Dec. 19, 1978, January 12, 1987) Northern Belgium system (August 4, 1982) Swedish system (Dec. 27, 1983) Japanese (Tokyo) system (July 23, 1987) Florida system (December 28, 1982) US Eastern system (August 14, 2003) Cost of disturbance could be very high (100s of Millions of dollars)
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Key Problem
Transfer of P, Q, through a highly inductive network; as influenced by
Load characteristics, ULTC action Generator field and armature current limits Reactive power compensation/voltage control Coordination of protection and control systems

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Why Is This Problem More Acute Now?

Utilities are pushing a lot more power thru the network Innovations in stabilizing measures have increased angle stability limits Until the mid eighties, voltage/reactive power problems had not been studied properly Deregulation has made the problems even worse
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Lessons Learned
In restoration, there are major issues associated with the control of voltage and reactive power Sustained overvoltage problem Transient overvoltages Harmonics Voltage instability

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