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Discourse Analysis & Phonology

Phonology is a branch of linguistics, closely related to phonetics. It studies the manners of organization and usage of the speech sounds in natural languages. Phonetics deals with the smallest chunks of language, yet it is in connection with other linguistic disciplines like morphology, because adding morphemes may change the meaning of words and their pronunciation, frequently following patterns-eg. work + er = worker. Phonetics is also related to syntax, as depending on a function of a word in a sentence it can be pronounced differently with a shifted phrasal stress and with changed intonation-eg. Who are you? Who are you! Similarly, this branch of linguistics is connected to semantics because of intonation constraints. While phonetics studies the production and perception of the speech sounds (for instance, in the expression 'London photography', phonetics would analyze all the sounds present in the words 'London' and 'photography', describing how they are produced). phonology is more interested in the abstract, that is mental aspects of these sounds. It inquiries into and describes the patterns of sounds and sound types which native speakers acquire intuitively. http://tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/phonology.htm

Pronunciation Traditional pronunciation teaching - segments sounds of language into discrete items called phonemes which produce meaningful contrasts with other words e.g. pump and bump, pat and bat Vowels in words are generally affected by the surrounding consonants . E.g. (Good morning & Good Evening) refer to page 89 MC.

According to Pennington & RichardsPronunciation is important to determine correct meaning of words. RhythmSegmental or phoneme-based -- Prosodicstress & intonation Pronunciation can cause problem or difficulty in understanding each other.

Assimilation is concerned with one sound becoming phonetically similar to an adjacent sound. Sounds that belong to one word can cause changes in sounds belonging to other words. When a words pronunciation is affected by sounds in a neighbouring word, we call this process assimilation. In rapid speech native speakers of English tend to pronounce ten bucks as though it were written tembucks, and in anticipation of the voiceless s in son the final consonant of his in his son is not as fully voiced as the s in his daughter, where it clearly is [z]. The term elision describes the disappearance of a sound. For example, in the utterance He leaves next week speakers would generally elide (leave out) the /t/ in next saying /neks wi:k/. Again here, the reason is an economy of effort, and in some instances the difficulty of putting certain consonant sounds together while maintaining a regular rhythm and speed.

Reader activity Assimilations and elisions Consider how the following would be articulated in informal conversation in Standard British English (or, if you speak another variety, in that variety). What changes would take place to the way the pronunciation of the individual words in isolation are represented in dictionaries?

1. ten or eleven months ago 2. I asked him what went on 3. not her! not Mary! 4. considering my age, I ran miles

Rhythm When we listen to a stretch of spoken English discourse, we often feel that there is a rhythm or regularity to it, which is a characteristic sound, different from other languages and not always well-imitated by foreign learners. Eg. Most of the people were visitors. A friend of mine has bought a boat. A week at the seaside is just what I need.

Important Element in The Teaching of Spoken English


English has : i) rhythmicality of different degrees in speeches of :
broadcast fluent reading speeches monologues ordinary conversation

ii) stress-timed L :--stress timing --syllable-timing --e.g : the word extraordinary, mother, etc.

Traditionally, rhythm has been considered an important element in the teaching of spoken English. This is probably due to two main factors. Rhythm: a strong, regular, repeated pattern of movement or sound. "Ruth listened to the rhythm of his breathing

Firstly, there does seem to be rhythmicality in varying degrees in long stretches of speech, especially carefully considered deliveries such as broadcast talks, fluent reading aloud, speeches and monologues, as well as some ordinary conversation. Secondly, the concept of English as a stress-timed language, deeply rooted in theoretical and applied linguistics, has dominated approaches to the teaching of rhythm.

Prominence : Syllables which stand out in the flow of talk Because speaker has uttered them with greater intensity or duration or pitch duration. Sentence stress is also called tonic. e.g : JA pan ESE, or Japan S, never JaPAnese. Good example : 4.16

Placing of Prominence
e.g : 4.17, 4.18 & 4.19 Interactive choice is important. When we consider prominence in discourse, we are considering the extent to which speakers & listeners worlds converge. e.g: 4.21 ( I can take you right to the door if you wish). --The emphasis on to instead of door. e.g: In Islam, one who seeks knowledge must practice humility. .

Intonational Unit.
Intonation is essential to interprete meaning e.g : sarcasm, surprise, teasing etc. Cant really be taught but the more you are exposed to it, the more conversant you are about the right intonation for specific intention. According to linguists, intonation is related to information structure of utterances. Halliday believes that speakers decide how to segment information. e.g: I know I am far from being a perfect Muslim. I am still unsure of the state I will be in when my Creator finally calls me up. I am worried whether I would pass the test, ie. the pain, the agony, especially during sakaratul maut (death throes).

Many phonologists believe that it is possible to divide speech up into small units in which each unit has at least one main, or nuclear prominence.

This prominence will be marked by some variation in pitch, either predominantly rising or falling (see 4.7). The unit thus defined may then have other, non-nuclear, prominences (usually just one), and other, non-prominent syllables. The nuclear prominence is the last prominence in the unit, and such units are usually called tone units or tone groups. Typical tone groups would be (from now on we shall show the nuclear syllable in bold to distinguish it from prominent, non-nuclear syllables):

(4.30) / she WORKS for the Government / (4.3 1) / i KNOW the FACE / but i CAN't put (4.32) / WHERE'S that FRIEND of yours /

Prominence - may be used to draw the listeners attention to a wide variety of phenomenon in the discourse, including markings of the speakers turn a new topic & emphasis on contrast or giving new info

Turn-taking
Speakers can signal a desire to continue a speaking turn by : using low pitch pause to stop or continue low pitch for ending statement syntax, lexis, non-verbal communication & context Types of tones are not easy to separate. (good example p. 105 4.39)

Suggestions for Teachers.


Expose students to basic everyday functions --simple fall/fall-rise Expose them to contextualized key system --through dialogues. Pitchthrough prepared talks & anecdote telling.

Opinions on tone
1) intonation has grammatical function. e.g: Qscorrect interrogative intonation is essential. --tag qs --subordinate clause e.g: The woman I saw yesterday is my mothers friend.

One widely held view: there are 'correct intonations for things such as questions, sentence-tags, subordinate clauses, and so on. Most common among these views is that 'yes-no' type interrogatives end in a rising tone, as in: IS it INteresting?

Dyou feel ANGry?


Conversely, wh- interrogatives are held to be uttered with a fall:

WHAT'S the PROBlem?

Attitudinal approaches By far the most common view of intonation is that it is related to attitude and/or emotion, that some intonations express 'surprise', or 'detachment', and so on. This seems particularly so when we look at utterances such as: \ JOHN! / HOW nice to SEE you! / (high fall: surprise) I he's Coming on FRIday I Isn't that GOOD! / (rise-fall: excitement)

For the purposes of teaching, the simple fall and the fall-rise are definitely the most useful tones to present and practise first, since they fulfill such basic, everyday functions, and they can be presented in contrast with each other in the same utterance or exchange, as in examples (4.51-55).

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