Problem Definition and the

Research Proposal
A Sea Horse’s Tale
Problem Discovery Problem Selection of
and Definition discovery exploratory research
technique
Sampling

Selection of
exploratory research
technique ProbabilityNo probability

Secondary
Experience Pilot Case Collection of
(historical) Data
survey study study data
data Gathering
(fieldwork)

Data
Editing and
Problem definition Processing
coding
(statement of and
Analysis data
research objectives)

Data
Selection of processing
Research Design basic research
method Conclusions
Interpretation
and Report
of
findings
Experiment Survey
Secondary
Laborator Field Intervie Questionnair Observation
Data Study Report
y w e
 Uncertainty Influences the Type
of Research

CAUSAL OR COMPLETELY ABSOLUTE EXPLORATORY

DESCRIPTIVE CERTAIN AMBIGUITY
Problem Discovery and Definition
First step
Problem, opportunity, or monitor
operations
Discovery before definition
Problem means management
problem
 “The formulation of the
problem is often more
essential than its solution.”

Albert Einstein
 Problem Definition
The indication of a specific business
decision area that will be clarified by
answering some research questions.
 Defining Problem Results in
Clear Cut Research Objectives
Symptom Detection

Analysis of
the Situation
Exploratory
Research
(Optional)
Problem Definition

Statement of
Research Objectives
 The Process of
Problem Definition
Ascertain the Determine unit
decision maker’s of analysis
objectives

Understand Determine
background of relevant
the problem variables

Isolate/identify State research

the problem, not questions and
the symptoms objectives
Ascertain the Decision Maker’s
Objectives
Decision makers’ objectives
Managerial goals expressed in
measurable terms.

10
 The Iceberg Principle

The principle indicating that the

dangerous part of many business
problems is neither visible to nor
understood by managers.
Understand the Background of
the Problem
Exercising judgment
Situation analysis - The informal
gathering of background information
to familiarize researchers or
managers with the decision area.

12
 Isolate and Identify the
Problems, Not the Symptoms
Symptoms can be confusing

13
 Symptoms Can Be Confusing
Twenty-year-old neighborhood swimming
association:
Membership has been declining for
years.
New water park -residents prefer the
expensive water park????
Demographic changes: Children have
grown up
 Problem Definition
Organization Symptoms Based on Symptom True Problem

Twenty-year-old Membership has been Neighborhood Demographic changes:

neighborhood declining for years. residents prefer the Children in this 20-
swimming New water park with expensive water year-old neighborhood
association in a wave pool and water park and have have grown up. Older
major city. slides moved into negative image of residents no longer
town a few years ago. swimming pool. swim anywhere.
What Language Is Written on
This Stone Found by
Archaeologists?

TOTI
EMUL
ESTO
The Language Is English: To
Tie Mules To

TOTI
EMUL
ESTO
Determine the Unit of Analysis
Individuals, households,
organizations, etc.
In many studies, the family rather
than the individual is the appropriate
unit of analysis.

18
 Determine the Relevant
Variable
Anything that may assume different
numerical values

19
 Types of Variables
Categorical
Continuous
Dependent
Independent
 Hypothesis
An unproven proposition
A possible solution to a problem
Guess
State the research questions
and research objectives

22
If you do not know where you are
going,
any road will take you there.
 Broad Statement Exploratory
research of business research
objectives problem (optional)

Specific Specific Specific

Objective 1 Objective 2 Objective 3

Research
Results
Design
 The Process of
Problem Definition
Ascertain the Determine unit
decision maker’s of analysis
objectives

Understand Determine
background of relevant
the problem variables

Isolate/identify State research

the problem, not questions and
the symptoms objectives
 Research Proposal
A written statement of the research
design that includes a statement
explaining the purpose of the study
Detailed outline of procedures
associated with a particular
methodology
 Basic Questions -
Problem Definition

What is the purpose of the study?

How much is already known?
Is additional background information
necessary?
What is to be measured? How?
Can the data be made available?
Should research be conducted?
Can a hypothesis be formulated?
 Basic Questions -
Basic Research Design
What types of questions need to be
answered?
Are descriptive or causal findings
required?
What is the source of the data?
 Basic Questions -
Basic Research Design
Can objective answers be obtained
by asking people?
How quickly is the information
needed?
How should survey questions be
worded?
How should experimental
manipulations be made?
 Basic Questions -
Selection of Sample
Who or what is the source of the data?
Can the target population be identified?
Is a sample necessary?
How accurate must the sample be?
Is a probability sample necessary?
Is a national sample necessary?
How large a sample is necessary?
How will the sample be selected?
 Basic Questions -
Data Gathering
Who will gather the data?
How long will data gathering take?
How much supervision is needed?
What operational procedures need to
be followed?
 Basic Questions -
Data Analysis
Will standardized editing and coding
procedures be used?
How will the data be categorized?
What statistical software will be used?
What is the nature of the data?
What questions need to be answered?
How many variables are to be
investigated simultaneously?
Performance criteria for evaluation?
 Basic Questions -
Type of Report
Who will read the report?
Are managerial recommendations
requested?
How many presentations are
required?
What will be the format of the
written report?
 Basic Questions -
Overall Evaluation
How much will the study cost?
Is the time frame acceptable?
Is outside help needed?
Will this research design attain the
stated research objectives?
When should the research be
scheduled to begin?
 Anticipating Outcomes
Dummy tables
Representations of the actual tables
that will be in the findings section of
the final report; used to gain a better
understanding of what the actual
outcomes of the research will be.
Research Design
 Research Design:
Definition
A research design is a framework or blueprint
for conducting the marketing research project.
It details the procedures necessary for
obtaining the information needed to structure
or solve marketing research problems.
 Components of a Research
Design
Define the information needed
Design the exploratory, descriptive,
and/or causal phases of the research
Specify the measurement and scaling
procedures
Construct and pretest a questionnaire
(interviewing form) or an appropriate
form for data collection
Specify the sampling process and sample
size
Develop a plan of data analysis
A Classification Research
Designs
Research Design

Exploratory Conclusive
Research Research
Design Design
Descriptive Causal
Research Research

Cross- Longitudinal
Sectional Design
Design
Single Cross- Multiple Cross-
Sectional Sectional
Design Design
 Exploratory & Conclusive
Research Differences
Exploratory Conclusive
Objective: To provide insights and To test specific hypotheses and
understanding. examine relationships.

Character- Information needed is Information needed is clearly

istics: defined only loosely.
Research process is flexible
and unstructured. Sample is
small and non-
representative. Analysis of
primary data is qualitative.
defined. Research process is
formal and structured. Sample
is large and representative.
Data analysis is quantitative.

Findings/ Conclusive.
Results: Tentative.

Outcome: Findings used as input into

Generally followed by further decision making.
exploratory or conclusive
 A Comparison of Basic
Research Designs
Exploratory Descriptive Causal
Objective: Discovery of Describe market Determine
ideas and characteristics or cause and
insights functions effect
relationships
Characteristics: Marked by the prior
Flexible, versatile formulation of Manipulation of
specific hypotheses one or more
independent
Preplanned and variables
Often the front structured design
end of total Control of
research design other
Secondary data: mediating
Methods: Expert surveys quantitative analysis variables
Pilot surveys Surveys
Secondary data: Panels Experiments
qualitative Observation and
analysis other data
Uses of Exploratory Research
Formulate a problem or define a problem
more precisely
Identify alternative courses of action
Develop hypotheses
Isolate key variables and relationships for
further examination
Gain insights for developing an approach
to the problem
Establish priorities for further research
 Methods of Exploratory
Research

Survey of experts
Pilot surveys
Secondary data analyzed in a
qualitative way
Qualitative research
 Use of Descriptive
Research
To describe the characteristics of relevant
groups, such as consumers, salespeople,
organizations, or market areas.
To estimate the percentage of units in a
specified population exhibiting a certain
behavior.
To determine the perceptions of product
characteristics.
To determine the degree to which marketing
variables are associated.
To make specific predictions.
 Methods of Descriptive
Research
Secondary data analyzed in a quantitative as
opposed to a qualitative manner
Surveys
Panels
Observational and other data
Exploratory Research Design:
Secondary Data
Primary Vs. Secondary
Data
Primary data are originated by a
researcher for the specific purpose of
addressing the problem at hand. The
collection of primary data involves all six
steps of the marketing research process
(Chapter 1).
Secondary data are data that have
already been collected for purposes other
than the problem at hand. These data
can be located quickly and inexpensively.
 A Comparison of Primary
&
Table 4.1
Secondary Data
Primary Data Secondary Data

Collection purpose For the problem at hand For other

problems
Collection process Very involved Rapid &
easy
Collection cost High Relatively
low
Collection time Long Short
Uses of Secondary
Data
Identify the problem
Better define the problem
Develop an approach to the problem
Formulate an appropriate research design (for
example, by identifying the key variables)
Answer certain research questions and test some
hypotheses
Interpret primary data more insightfully
Criteria for Evaluating
Secondary Data
Specifications: Methodology Used to Collect the Data
Error: Accuracy of the Data
Currency: When the Data Were Collected
Objective(s): The Purpose for Which the Data Were
Collected
Nature: The Content of the Data
Dependability: Overall, How Dependable Are the Data
 Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data
Table 4.2

Criteria Issues
Remarks
Specifications Data collection method,
& response rate, quality &
Methodology analysis of data, sampling
technique & size, questionnaire
design, fieldwork.
Error & Examine errors in approach,
Accuracy research design, sampling, data
collection & analysis, &
reporting.
Currency
Time lag between collection &
Objective publication, frequency of
updates.
Nature Why were the data collected?
Definition of key variables, units Reconfigure the data
Dependability of
measurement, categories used, usefulness.
relationships examined.
Data should be
reliable, valid, &
generalizable to the
problem.
Assess accuracy by
comparing data from
different sources.
Census data are
updated by syndicated
firms.
The objective
determines the
relevance of data.
to increase their
 A Classification of Secondary
Data
Fig. 4.1

Secondary Data

Internal External

Ready Requires Published Computerize Syndicate

to Use Further Materials d Databases d
Processin Services
g
Internal Secondary Data
Department Store Project
Sales were analyzed to obtain:
Sales by product line
Sales by major department (e.g., men's
wear, house wares)
Sales by specific stores
Sales by geographical region
Sales by cash versus credit purchases
Sales in specific time periods
Sales by size of purchase
Sales trends in many of these
classifications were also examined
 Type of Individual/Household Level Data
Available from Syndicated Firms
I. Demographic Data
- Identification (name, address, email,
telephone)
- Sex
- Marital status
- Names of family members
- Age (including ages of family
members)
- Income
- Occupation
- Number of children present
- Home ownership
- Length of residence
Type of Individual/Household Level Data Available from
Syndicated Firms

II. Psychographic Lifestyle Data

- Interest in golf
- Interest in snow skiing
- Interest in book reading
- Interest in running
- Interest in bicycling
- Interest in pets
- Interest in fishing
- Interest in electronics
- Interest in cable television
There are also firms such as Dun & Bradstreet and American
Business Information which collect demographic data on
businesses.
 Published Secondary
Sources
Fig. 4.2

Published
Secondary Data

General Government
Business Sources
Sources

Guides Directories Indexes Statistical Census Other

Data Data Governmen
t
Publications
 Computerized
Databases
Fig. 4.3

Computerized
Databases

Online Internet Off-Line

Bibliographic Numeric Full-Text Directory Special-

Databases Database Database Databases Purpose
s s Database
s
 Published External Secondary Sources
Guides
An excellent source of standard or recurring information
Helpful in identifying other important sources of directories, trade
associations, and trade publications
One of the first sources a researcher should consult

Directories
Helpful for identifying individuals or organizations that collect
specific data
Examples: Consultants and Consulting Organizations Directory,
Encyclopedia of Associations, FINDEX: The Directory of Market
Research Reports, Studies and Surveys, and Research Services
Directory

Indices
Helpful in locating information on a particular topic in several
different publications
 Classification of Computerized
Databases
Bibliographic databases are composed of citations
to articles
Numeric databases contain numerical and
statistical information
Full-text databases contain the complete text of
the source documents comprising the database
Directory databases provide information on
individuals, organizations, and services
Special-purpose databases provide specialized
information
 Syndicated Services
Companies that collect and sell common pools of data of
known commercial value designed to serve a
number of clients
Syndicated sources can be classified based on the unit of
measurement (households/consumers or institutions)
Household/consumer data may be obtained from
surveys, diary panels, or electronic scanner services
Institutional data may be obtained from retailers,
wholesalers, or industrial firms
 A Classification of
Syndicated Services
Fig. 4.4 Unit of
Measureme
nt

Households/
Institution
Consumers
s
 Syndicated Services: Consumers

Fig. 4.4 cont.

Households /
Consumers

Panels

Electronic
Purchase Media scanner
services

Surveys Volume Scanner Scanner

Tracking Panels Panels with
Data Cable TV
Psychograph Advertising
General
ic Evaluation
& Lifestyles
Syndicated Services: Institutions
Fig. 4.4 cont.
Institutions

Retailers Wholesaler Industrial firms

s

Audits

Direct Clipping Corporate

Inquiries Services Reports
 Overview of Syndicated Services
Table 4.3
Type Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Uses

Surveys Surveys conductedat Most flexible wayof Interviewer errors; Market

regular intervals obtainingdata; respondent errors segmentation,
information on advertisingtheme
underlyingmotives selectionand
advertising
effectiveness
Purchase Households provide Recordedpurchase Lackof Forecastingsales,
Panels specific information behavior canbe representativeness; market share and
regularlyover an linkedto the response bias; trends; establishing
extendedperiodof demographic/ maturation consumer profiles,
time; respondent psychographic brandloyaltyand
askedto record characteristics switching; evaluating
specific behaviors as test markets,
theyoccur advertising, and
distribution
Media Panels Electronic devices Same as purchase Same as purchase Establishing
automatically panel panel advertisingrates;
recordingbehavior, selectingmedia
supplementedbya programor air time;
diary establishingviewer
profiles
 Services
Table 4.3
cont.Diary Panels Scanner panels of
Scanner Data reflect actual Data may not be Promotional mix
with Cable TV households that purchases; sample representative; quality analyses, copy testing,
subscribe to cable TV control; ability to link of data limited new product testing,
panel data to household positioning
characteristics

Audit services Verification of Relatively precise Coverage may be Measurement of

product movement by information at the incomplete; matching consumer sales and
examining physical retail and wholesale of data on competitive market share,
records or performing levels activity may be competitive activity,
inventory analysis difficult analyzing distribution
patterns: tracking of
new products
Industrial Product Data banks on Important source of Data are lacking in Determining market
Syndicated Services industrial information on terms of content, potential by geographic
establishments created industrial firms, quantity, and quality area, defining sales
through direct inquiriesparticularly useful in territories, allocating
of companies, clipping initial phases of the advertising budget
services, and corporate projects
reports
 Single-Source Data
Single-source data provide integrated information on
household variables, including media consumption and
purchases, and marketing variables, such as product
sales, price, advertising, promotion, and in-store
marketing effort

Recruit a test panel of households and meter each home's TV

sets
Survey households periodically on what they read
Grocery purchases are tracked by UPC scanners
Track retail data, such as sales, advertising, and promotion
Exploratory Research
Design:
Qualitative Research
A Classification of Research Data
Marketing Research Data

Secondary Data Primary Data

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Descriptive Causal

Survey Observational Experiment

Data and Other al Data
 Qualitative Vs. Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Objective To gain a qualitative To quantify the data and

understanding of the generalize the results
underlying reasons and from the sample to the
motivations population of interest

Sample Small number of non- Large number of

representative cases representative cases

Data Unstructured Structured

Collection
Non-statistical Statistical
Data Analysis
Develop an initial Recommend a final
Outcome understanding course of action
 A Classification of Qualitative
Research Procedures
Qualitative Research
Procedures

Direct (Non- Indirect

disguised) (Disguised)

Projective
Depth Interviews Techniques
Focus Groups

Associatio Completio Construction Expressive

n n Techniques Technique
Technique Technique s
 Characteristics of Focus Groups

Group Size 8-12

Group Composition Homogeneous,

respondents,
prescreened

Physical Setting Relaxed, informal atmosphere

Time Duration 1-3 hours

Recording Use of audiocassettes and

videotapes

Moderator Observational, interpersonal,

and communication skills of the
moderator
 Key Qualifications of Focus
Group Moderators
1. Kindness with firmness: The moderator must
combine a disciplined detachment with
understanding empathy so as to generate the
necessary interaction.
2. Permissiveness: The moderator must be
permissive yet alert to signs that the group’s
cordiality or purpose is disintegrating.
3. Involvement: The moderator must encourage and
stimulate intense personal involvement.
4. Incomplete understanding: The moderator must
encourage respondents to be more specific about
generalized comments by exhibiting incomplete
understanding.
Key Qualifications of Focus
Group Moderators, cont.
5. Encouragement: The moderator must
encourage unresponsive members to
participate.

6. Flexibility: The moderator must be able to

improvise and alter the planned outline amid
the distractions of the group process.

7. Sensitivity: The moderator must be sensitive

enough to guide the group discussion at an
intellectual as well as emotional level.
 Procedure for Planning and
Conducting Focus Groups
Determine the Objectives and Define the Problem

Specify the Objectives of Qualitative

Research
State the Objectives/Questions to be Answered by Focus
Groups
Write a Screening Questionnaire

Develop a Moderator’s Outline

Conduct the Focus Group Interviews

Review Tapes and Analyze the Data

Summarize the Findings and Plan Follow-Up Research or

Action
Variations in Focus Groups
Two-way focus group. This allows one target
group to listen to and learn from a related group. For
example, a focus group of physicians viewed a focus
group of arthritis patients discussing the treatment
they desired.

Dual-moderator group. A focus group conducted

by two moderators: One moderator is responsible for
the smooth flow of the session, and the other ensures
that specific issues are discussed.

Dueling-moderator group. There are two

moderators, but they deliberately take opposite
positions on the issues to be discussed.
Variations in Focus Groups
Respondent-moderator group. The moderator asks
selected participants to play the role of moderator
temporarily to improve group dynamics.
Client-participant groups. Client personnel are
identified and made part of the discussion group.
Mini groups. These groups consist of a moderator
and only 4 or 5 respondents.
Tele-session groups. Focus group sessions by phone
using the conference call technique.
Online Focus groups. Focus groups conducted online
over the Internet.
Advantages of Focus Groups
1. Synergism
2. Snowballing
3. Stimulation
4. Security
5. Spontaneity
6. Serendipity
7. Specialization
8. Scientific scrutiny
9. Structure
10. Speed
Disadvantages of
Focus Groups
1. Misuse
2. Misjudge
3. Moderation
4. Messy
5. Misrepresentation
 Online Versus Traditional Focus
Groups
Characteristic Online Focus Groups Traditional Focus Groups

Group size 4-6 8-12

Group composition Anywhere in the world Drawn from the local area

Time duration 1-1.5 hours 1-3 hours

Physical setting Researcher has little control Under the control of the
researcher

Respondent identity Difficult to verify Can be easily verified

Respondent attentiveness Respondents can engage in

other tasks Attentiveness can be monitored
 Online Versus Traditional Focus
Groups
.

Respondent recruiting Easier. Can be recruited online, e-mail, Recruited by

traditional means
panel, or by traditional means (telephone, mail, mail panel)

Group dynamics Limited Synergistic, snowballing

(bandwagon) effect

Openness of respondentsRespondents are more candid Respondents are candid,

except for due to lack of face-to-face contact sensitive topics

Nonverbal communication Body language cannot be

observed Body language and emotions Emotions expressed
by using symbols observed

Use of physical stimuli Limited to those that can be displayed A variety of stimuli
(products, on the Internet advertising
demonstrations, etc.) can be used
 Online Versus Traditional Focus
Groups
Transcripts Available immediately Time consuming and
expensive to obtain

Observers’ communication Observers can communicate

with the Observers can manually send notes
with moderator the moderator on a split-screen to the focus group room

Unique moderator skills Typing, computer usage, familiarity Observational

with chat room slang

Turnaround time Can be set up and completed Takes many days for setup and
in a few days completion

Client travel costs None Can be expensive

Basic focus group costs Much less expensive More expensive: facility rental,
food, taping,
transcript preparation
 Advantages of Online Focus Groups

Geographical constraints are removed and time

constraints are lessened.
Unique opportunity to re-contact group
participants at a later date.
Can recruit people not interested in traditional
focus groups: doctors, lawyers, etc.
Moderators can carry on side conversations with
individual respondents.
There is no travel, videotaping, or facilities to
arrange so the cost is much lower.
Disadvantages of Online Focus Groups

Only people that have access to the Internet can

participate.

Verifying that a respondent is a member of a

target group is difficult.

There is lack of general control over the

respondent's environment.

Only audio and visual stimuli can be tested.

Products can not be touched (e.g., clothing) or
smelled (e.g., perfumes).
 Depth Interview Techniques:
Laddering
In laddering, the line of questioning proceeds from product
characteristics to user characteristics. This technique allows the
researcher to tap into the consumer's network of meanings.

Wide body aircrafts (product characteristic)

I can get more work done

I accomplish more

I feel good about myself(user characteristic)

Advertising theme: You will feel good about yourself when flying
our airline. “You're The Boss.”
 Depth Interview Techniques:
Hidden Issue Questioning
In hidden issue questioning, the focus is not on socially
shared values but rather on personal “sore spots;” not on
general lifestyles but on deeply felt personal concerns.

fantasies, work lives, and social lives

historic, elite, “masculine-camaraderie,” competitive activities

Advertising theme: communicate aggressiveness, high status,

and competitive heritage of the airline.
 Depth Interview Techniques:
Symbolic Analysis
Symbolic analysis attempts to analyze the symbolic meaning of objects
by comparing them with their opposites. The logical opposites of a product
that are investigated are: non-usage of the product, attributes of an
imaginary “non-product,” and opposite types of products.

“What would it be like if you could no longer use airplanes?”

“Without planes, I would have to rely on letters and long- distance calls.”

Airlines sell to the managers face-to-face communication.

Advertising theme: The airline will do the same thing for a manager as
Federal Express does for a package.
 Focus Groups Versus
Depth Interviews
Table 5.4

Characteristic Focus Depth

Groups Interviews
Group synergy and dynamics + -
Peer pressure/group influence - +
Client involvement + -
Generation of innovative ideas + -
In-depth probing of individuals - +
Uncovering hidden motives - +
Discussion of sensitive topics - +
 Focus Groups Versus
Depth Interviews
Table 5.4, cont.

Characteristic Focus Depth

Groups Interviews
Interviewing competitors - +
Interviewing professional - +
respondents
- +
Scheduling of respondents
+ -
Amount of information
+ -
Bias in moderation and
+ -
interpretation
Note:
Cost perA respondent
+ indicates a relative advantage over the
other procedure, a - indicates a relative
Definition of Projective Techniques
An unstructured, indirect form of questioning that
encourages respondents to project their underlying
motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings regarding the
issues of concern.

In projective techniques, respondents are asked to

interpret the behavior of others.

In interpreting the behavior of others, respondents

indirectly project their own motivations, beliefs,
attitudes, or feelings into the situation.
 Word Association
In word association, respondents are presented with
a list of words, one at a time, and asked to respond to
each with the first word that comes to mind. The
words of interest, called test words, are interspersed
throughout the list which also contains some neutral,
or filler words to disguise the purpose of the study.
Responses are analyzed by calculating:
(1) the frequency with which any word is given as a
response;
(2) the amount of time that elapses before a response
is given; and
(3) the number of respondents who do not respond at
all to a test word within a reasonable period of time.
 Word Association

EXAMPLE

STIMULUS MRS. M MRS. C

washday everyday ironing
fresh and sweet clean
pure air soiled
scrub don't; husband does clean
filth this neighborhood dirt
bubbles bath soap
and water
family squabbles children
towels dirty wash
 Completion Techniques
In sentence completion, respondents are given incomplete sentences
and asked to complete them. Generally, they are asked to use the first
word or phrase that comes to mind.

A person who shops at Sears is ______________________

A person who receives a gift certificate good for Sak's Fifth Avenue would
be __________________________________

J. C. Penney is most liked by _________________________

When I think of shopping in a department store, I ________

A variation of sentence completion is paragraph completion, in which the

respondent completes a paragraph beginning with the stimulus phrase.
 Completion Techniques
In story completion, respondents are given part of a story – enough
to direct attention to a particular topic but not to hint at the ending.
They are required to give the conclusion in their own words.
 Construction Techniques
With a picture response, the respondents are asked to
describe a series of pictures of ordinary as well as unusual
events. The respondent's interpretation of the pictures gives
indications of that individual's personality.

In cartoon tests, cartoon characters are shown in a specific

situation related to the problem. The respondents are asked
to indicate what one cartoon character might say in response
to the comments of another character. Cartoon tests are
simpler to administer and analyze than picture response
techniques.
A Cartoon Test
Figure 5.4

Sears

Let’s see if we
can pick up
some house
wares at Sears.
 Expressive Techniques
In expressive techniques, respondents are presented with a
verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the feelings and
attitudes of other people to the situation.

Role playing Respondents are asked to play the role or

assume the behavior of someone else.

Third-person technique The respondent is presented with a

verbal or visual situation and the respondent is asked to relate
the beliefs and attitudes of a third person rather than directly
expressing personal beliefs and attitudes. This third person
may be a friend, neighbor, colleague, or a “typical” person.
 Advantages of Projective Techniques

They may elicit responses that subjects would be

unwilling or unable to give if they knew the purpose of
the study.

Helpful when the issues to be addressed are personal,

sensitive, or subject to strong social norms.

Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and

attitudes are operating at a subconscious level.
 Disadvantages of Projective Techniques

Suffer from many of the disadvantages of unstructured

direct techniques, but to a greater extent.
Require highly-trained interviewers.
Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the
responses.
There is a serious risk of interpretation bias.
They tend to be expensive.
May require respondents to engage in unusual behavior.
Guidelines for Using Projective Techniques

Projective techniques should be used

because the required information cannot be
accurately obtained by direct methods.
Projective techniques should be used for
exploratory research to gain initial insights
and understanding.
Given their complexity, projective
techniques should not be used naively.
 Comparison of Focus Groups, Depth Interviews,
and Projective Techniques
Table 5.5

Criteria Focus Depth Projective

Groups Interviews Techniques
1. Degree of Structure Relatively high Relatively Relatively low
2. Probing of individual Low medium Medium
respondents High
3. Moderator bias Relatively Low to high
4. Interpretation bias medium Relatively high Relatively high
5. Uncovering Relatively low High
subconscious Low Relatively
information medium Medium
6. Discovering to high Low
innovative High
information High
Low Medium
7. Obtaining sensitive
Yes
information
No
8. Involve unusual Medium Somewhat
behavior or
Highly useful useful
questioning
To a limited
9. Overall usefulness
extent
 Analysis of Qualitative Data
1)Data reduction – Select which aspects of the data are to be
emphasized, minimized, or set aside for the project at hand.
2)Data display – Develop a visual interpretation of the data with
the use of such tools as a diagram, chart, or matrix. The
display helps to illuminate patterns and interrelationships in
the data.
3)Conclusion drawing and verification – Considers the meaning
of analyzed data and assess its implications for the research
question at hand.
Ethical Issues
Ethical issues related to the respondents and
the general public are of primary concern.
Disguise can violate the respondents' right to
know and result in psychological harm.
In debriefing sessions, respondents should be
informed about the true purpose and given
opportunities to ask questions.
The use of qualitative research results for
questionable purposes raises ethical concerns
 Ethical Issues
Deceptive procedures that violate respondents’
right to privacy and informed consent should be
avoided
Video- or audio-taping the respondents without
their prior knowledge or consent raises ethical
concerns.
The comfort level of the respondents should be
addressed.