High Speed Aerodynamics

V.
High Speed Aerodynamics

Compressibility
Effects Importance of the Speed of Sound Realms of Flight Supersonic Flow Patterns
High
Speed Airfoils Critical Mach Number Aerodynamic Heating
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Author: Harry L. Whitehead
V. High Speed Aerodynamics

Compressibility
Effects Importance of the Speed of Sound Realms of Flight Supersonic Flow Patterns
High
Speed Airfoils Critical Mach Number Aerodynamic Heating
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History and Introduction
Compressibility Effects Importance of the Speed of Sound Realms of Flight Supersonic Flow Patterns High Speed Airfoils Critical Mach Number Aerodynamic Heating
As WWII progressed, aircraft flew faster and faster. By mid-war, P51s, Spitfires, and other types were reaching speeds close to that of sound, especially in dives. Pilots began to report control difficulties and unexpected problems which experts determined were due to flying too close to the speed of sound.
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In 1940, NACA commissioned the Bell Aircraft Company to build a special research aircraft for the purpose of exploring the speed range near and beyond the speed of sound. It was considered better to do the research using an actual aircraft because the USA had no wind tunnels capable of operating at supersonic speed. Of course, the Germans did.
Author: Harry L. Whitehead 4
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The research aircraft Bell built was designated the X1. Two operational aircraft were finally built, although they did not fly until the war was over.
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By the time the war was over, the German research data had been captured and several of the questions the X1 was intended to answer were already known. Nevertheless, the X1 became the first aircraft to exceed the speed of sound in October 1947 when Chuck Yeager flew it to Mach 1.1 .
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X1 movie
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Compressibility Effects
At subsonic speed (less than Mach 1) air acts as if its an incompressible fluid Can change its velocity and pressure but not density As long as it can still move, the space between molecules will effectively not change = density remains constant
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Bernoullis Principle: Subsonic: In CONVERGING portion of venturi (Inlet) Air must travel faster to get to other side at same time as bypass air Velocity goes up Pressure goes down

Bernoullis Principle: Subsonic: In DIVERGING portion of venturi (Exit) Pressure and Velocity return to original Based on Total Energy being constant throughout Pressure = Potential Energy Velocity = Kinetic Energy

At supersonic speed (more than Mach 1) air can be compressed and its density increased Space between molecules can and is reduced
Link to venturi simulation


Bernoullis
Principle: Opposite effects as compared to subsonic Converging: Pressure goes up and Velocity goes down Diverging: Pressure down, Author: Harry L. Whitehead 2/2/2014 Velocity up
Link to venturi simulation

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Importance of the Speed of Sound

Sound is pressure disturbances radiating in all directions from the source Travels @ 661.7 knots (1,116.9 fps, 761.5 mph) under Standard Conditions Speed is directly proportional to temperature (goes down as temp. goes down) Can be calculated (CS = Local Speed of Sound): CS in kts = 29.04 oR oR = oF + 460 Note: o CS in fps = 49.022 R CS in mph = 33.42 oR
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Note that at 36,089 feet the temperature stabilizes at 69.7 and the Speed of Sound also stabilizes at 573.8 kts Also note that above 80,000 feet the temp starts to rise and the Speed of Sound also rises
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In subsonic flight Sound waves radiate from all points of airframe Can go in all directions as are faster than aircraft
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In supersonic flight Airplane faster so sound waves pile up at nose of airfoil Creates Shock Wave(s) = changes in pressure and velocity of airflow
Pressure Waves Link (Hide Shockwaves)


Realms of Flight
Mach # = ratio of True Airspeed of an aircraft to the Speed of Sound at that temperature Subsonic: .75 Mach or less All airflow over aircraft is < Mach 1
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Realms of Flight
Transonic: .75 to 1.2 Mach Mixture of sonic airflow speeds Some < Mach 1, some >= Mach 1 Aerodynamic center of lift moves to about 50% of chord Shock waves form and move around = large changes in trim & stability (control buffeting)
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Realms of Flight
Supersonic: 1.2 to 5.0 Mach All airflow is > Mach 1 Smooth & efficient flight
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Realms of Flight
Hypersonic:
> 5.0 Mach
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Realms of Flight
Hypersonic:
> 5.0 Mach Leads to Aerodynamic Heating & other flight problems
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Supersonic Flow Patterns (Shock Waves)
Shock waves form when the aircraft (or parts of it) are exceeding Mach 1 in speed Sound waves slower than aircraft speed Air piles up in Compression Wave = large changes in pressure, velocity, and density of airflow
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Shock waves form when the aircraft (or parts of it) are exceeding Mach 1 in speed Sound waves slower than aircraft speed Air piles up in Compression Wave = large changes in pressure, velocity, and density of airflow
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F18 flyby movie
F14 flyby movie
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3 kinds of Shock Waves: Oblique Normal Expansion

Pressure Waves Link 2/2/2014 Show Shockwaves Author: Harry L. Whitehead
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Oblique Shock Waves Forms on sharp edges with surface changing into the direction of the airflow commonly on Leading and Trailing Edges of airfoil Shock wave forms Oblique Angle with surface and points downstream in airflow Angle gets less as speed up Author: Harry L.goes Whitehead 2/2/2014 flattens out
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Oblique Shock Waves @ wave: Flow direction is deflected along surface Velocity decreases but STAYS ABOVE MACH 1 Pressure increases Temperature increases Density increases Total energy goes down Energy loss comes from loss of temperature (Heat of Compression) to atmosphere
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Normal Shock Waves Forms in front of or on blunt object or one with large included angle
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Normal Shock Waves In front: Molecules pile up and create wave detached and in front of the object = Bow Wave
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Normal Shock Waves
On: Attaches to curved portion where airflow speed is just above Mach 1 In Transonic range = form on upper airfoil surface first (at about .75 Mach) then lower surface (at about .85 Mach) NOTE: the indicated Mach numbers vary depending on the airfoil

Normal Shock Waves @ wave: Flow direction doesnt change Velocity decreases TO BELOW MACH 1 Subsonic speed inversely proportional to Mach # entering wave (higher CS going in = lower subsonic speed coming out) Large Pressure, Density, and Temperature increase Large Total Energy decrease (from temp. radiation into air)
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Expansion Shock Waves

Form where surface turns away from airflow direction Middle of airfoil Velocity increases Pressure and Density both decrease Temperature remains relatively constant = little or no Total Energy change (is not a compression wave)
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High Speed Airfoils and Critical Mach Number
Subsonic Airfoils
Below about .75 Mach = all flow is subsonic
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Subsonic Airfoils
In Transonic speed range: At some airspeed ( = Critical Mach Number or MCR) some airflow will reach or exceed Mach 1
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Subsonic Airfoils
In Transonic speed range:
Normal shock wave forms on upper surface where max airfoil thickness is ( = greatest velocity) Causes large increase in drag

Subsonic Airfoils
In Transonic speed range: Pressure rise through shock wave reduces strength of low pressure area on wing Low pressure usually sucks air against airfoil for smooth flow Loss of low pressure = air isnt sucked down smoothly and SHOCK INDUCED SEPARATION occurs on upper surface = loss of lift and reduced control effectiveness from turbulence

Subsonic Airfoils
In Transonic speed range: As speed increases closer to Mach 1: Normal wave forms on lower surface and upper wave moves further back towards trailing edge = shock induced separation on bottom, too

Subsonic Airfoils In Transonic speed range: At Mach 1: Top and bottom normal waves have moved to trailing edge and form oblique waves there Entire surfaces have supersonic flow = smooth flow Leading edge now has normal wave forming in front of it Known as BOW WAVE Like wave at bow of boat
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Subsonic Airfoils In Transonic speed range: At Mach 1: Area behind bow wave is relatively slow and called STAGNATION AREA Large energy loss through normal wave creates significant drag
Shockwave Link Normal and Oblique Shockwaves
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Subsonic Airfoils In Transonic speed range: Above Mach 1: Stagnation area gets smaller but energy loss increases Greater change in velocity and pressure through normal wave = greater drag (proportional to speed)
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Subsonic Airfoils To increase Critical Mach Number (or delay Shock Induced Separation occurrence): Can use Vortex Generators or Swept Wings
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High Speed Airfoils and Critical Mach Number Subsonic Airfoils Vortex Generators Small, low Aspect Ratio airfoils mounted in pairs at 90o on wing surfaces Produces strong vortex around end = pulls air back onto wing surface = delays airflow separation Pair mounting = pairs work together for greater effectiveness
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High Speed Airfoils and Critical Mach Number Subsonic Airfoils Swept Wings Swept wings change the THICKNESS RATIO of the wing (also known as Fineness Ratio) Ratio of max. thickness of airfoil to chord Lower Thickness Ratio = thinner wing = less velocity change across wing = higher MCR
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High Speed Airfoils and Critical Mach Number Subsonic Airfoils Swept Wings Unfortunately, this also causes more flow of air in a spanwise direction = stronger wingtip vortices = increased drag overall Also, aft swept wings generally cause the tip to stall first (= potentially loose aileron control)
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Subsonic Airfoils
Swept Wings Forward swept wings (I.e. Grumman X-29) have same MCR advantages as aft swept + roots stall first = can do more extreme high angle of attack maneuvers without losing control But needs computer to control as is inherently very unstable

Subsonic Airfoils
Swept Wings Also, at higher speeds the wing will twist due to aerodynamic loading and will tend to wash in Increase angle of incidence = increased lift and drag = increased loads to failure Composite materials make wings light and stiff enough to withstand these forces
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Subsonic Airfoils
Movable Hor. Stab. Horizontal Stablizer will also tend to loose effectiveness at Critical Mach Number Can keep it effective by making its Angle of Incidence adjustable F86 used this to allow supersonic speeds while maintaining control Was first one to do so

Supersonic Airfoils To eliminate Shock Induced Separation in Transonic range = airfoils with max. thickness @ 50% of chord Double Wedge or Biconvex
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Supersonic Airfoils Thin airfoil = no normal shock forms Sharp edges form obliques with tiny bow wave and expansion wave in middle
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Supersonic Airfoils All lead to practically zero subsonic airflow (= zero turbulence and drag from energy change) Problem: not good subsonic characteristics
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Supersonic Aircraft Configuration Wing Planform Low Aspect Ratio & tapered Good strength and weight Sweptback For transonic and low supersonic Straight For high supersonic (Mach 2 +)
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Supersonic Aircraft Configuration Airfoil Low Thickness (Fineness) Ratio Gradual change in thickness (airfoil shape) Max. thickness @ 50% of chord Sharp leading and trailing edges
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Supersonic Aircraft Configuration Fuselage & Nacelles Long Slender Fuselage Wasp Waisted Decreases overall Form and Interference Drags from interaction of shock waves on various structure areas
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Supersonic Aircraft Configuration Tail Surfaces Planform and airfoil similar to wings Generally all movable horizontal surfaces Powered irreversible systems
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Aerodynamic Heating
As speeds increase above Mach 1, the Stagnation Area sees great temperature rises Faster = greater temp rise Less affect at higher altitudes

Aerodynamic Heating
Increased temps = decreased metal strengths As we near Hypersonic speeds the temps are so high that normal materials will melt Research today is in this area with ceramics and composite materials

Future?
Lockheed is working on this design slated to fly by 2010 Supposed to disperse the shock waves to allow supersonic flight over populated areas

Future?
Also, right now Quiet Spike
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Future?
Flew at Mach 9.6 Last year
X43 Overview X43 flights

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High Speed Aerodynamics

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