Mechanical Loads.Inertia and Balancing Diesel engine components are comprised of static loads (I.e.

loads arising from bolted assembly) and dynamic loads. The dynamic loads are due to forces arising from two sources. 1 The fluctuating gas pressure in the cylinder. 2 The inertia forces. Some cases such as the tension in the cylinder head studs ,the fluctuating load on them is entirely due to gas pressure. Others such as the bending of the frame to resist internal out of balance forces is due entirely to inertia forces.
Generally a component experiences dynamic loads which are compounded from both stated above.The loading due variation of gas pressure in the cylinder is easy to comprehend although the loading resulting from the combination of this with inertia forces is not that simple. The maximum loads may well result from high gas pressures at low speeds in case of some components ,while others experience their highest load when the engine is run at its maximum rev/min.

Rotating masses When a mass rotates about a centre other than its centre of gravity it has a centrifugal force. F = Mw2 r Where M is the mass , w is the angular velocity and r is the radius of its centre of gravity from the centre of rotation. If this mass is the pin on a one throw crank shaft supported in two bearings as seen in the figure below ,then the bearings will experience a load equal to the centrifugal force.

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A mass such as the one shown could be balanced with by introducing another mass with its centre of gravity diametrically to the first mass and at a position so that its moment is equal. As w2 is the same for the two masses then (M r )must be equal but opposite.Example is as depicted below.The crankpin and large end of the connecting rod give rise to an unbalanced centrifugal force which can be neutralized by fitting two balance weights on the which have a combined mass movement and centre of gravity which is diametrically opposite that of the crank itself.

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STATIC BALANCE A turbo blower rotor or a crankshaft is said to be statically balance if it contains its centre of gravity on the polar axis of its Journals.If supported on two knife edges on either side it will remain in its position without any movement.If it is out of balance statically it will have its C.G. displaced from the polar axis of the journals.When touch of a force is given it will always roll or come back to the same position where its C.G. is lying which is directly under the polar axis.If rolled to any other position other than where C.G.lies,a turning moment exists due to the displacement of gravity which causes the rotor or the crankshaft to roll until its C.G. is vertically below its polar axis.

DYNAMIC BALANCE When in dynamic balance the conditions for static balance must be always be present.We will now consider additions required for the dynamic balance.Now this shaft or the rotor we have said earlier is revolved on bearings that are placed on each side instead of the knife edge the load on each bearing must remain constant throughout 360 degrees of rotation or during the total revolving time.If the load on the bearing does not remain constant throughout the revolutions it indicates that some mass in one plane is out of balance is out of balance with another mass in another plane.A couple will then be set up which cause a variation in the load on each of the bearing.
If the turbo blower with two blade discs is considered it can be seen that if a blade were removed from one rotor disc and another blade was removed from the other rotor disc but diametrically opposite in angular position the rotor would be in good static balance if the moment (mass x distance from the axis) of each blade were the same. However if it was run up to speed in a balancing machine it would indicate severe dynamic imbalance due to moment created by each disc with missing blade.The out of balance forces not being in the same plane and some distance apart create a couple or moment.The rotor is out of dynamic balance. An engine is said to be in good balance if the forces and couples coming onto the bed plate are within acceptable limits and are not likely to cause trouble with the foundation chocks or holding down bolts,or set up unacceptable vibration in the engine foundation and hull structure.An engine is said to be in good balance when all forces caused by reciprocating and revolving parts must preferably fully balanced or atleast partially balanced.Any moments or couples by these forces must also fully or partially balanced. Though not possible to complete eradication it must be balanced out to acceptable values.Six or twelve cylinders are easier than eight where out of balance couple may exist.

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However a shaft such as a crank carries a number of eccentric masses.If the sum of the moments of all masses about the axis of rotation is equal to zero for all angular positions the assembly is said to be in static balance . In this condition the polygon of forces for the centrifugal forces is closed .The crankthrow elements of multi-cylinder engines are almost invariably identical with each other and in the case of having more than two cylinders these cranks are usually placed evenly so that the rotating forces are in static balance. However ,a shaft and mass assembly can be in static balance but not in dynamic balance.

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DYNAMIC BALANCE

However, a shaft and mass assembly can be in static balance but not in dynamic balance. This is illustrated below where masses,although diametrically opposite each other ,are not in the same plane.When a shaft with masses in a position such as this is revolved ,the centrifugal force of the two masses will create a couple which has to be resisted by the bearings, and again the bearings are loaded.

To achieve a dynamic balance all the masses must be arranged so that there are no out of balance couples.This may
be done by adding balance weights or it may be possible by suitably arranging the angular position of the cranks.When dynamic balance is achieved the polygon of couples in any reference plane is a closed figure. If there is an unbalanced couple in the system it will result in the same residual vector being required to close the polygon whatever reference plane is chose.If there is an unbalance force it will result in a residual closing vector varying with the reference plane and becoming zero when the reference plane coincides with the plane of force. The magnitude of out of balance forces and couples is proportional to the square of the angular velocity, and therefore,proportional to the square of the speed of the engine.

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DAMPED VIBRATION

Vertical multi cylinder engine may cause forces and moments. They could be categorized as 1. Primary and secondary disturbing forces arising out of reciprocating parts, together with their associated moments. 2. Horizontal and vertical forces and moments arising out of centrifugal forces from revolving parts. 3. Forces and moments arising out of guide forces. 4. Reaction of the engine structure du\e to torque from the crankshaft. The above are related to number of cylinders , crank angles, masses and speed of moving parts. In some cases forces and moments are balanced internally and have no external effect. In other cases the unbalance may be accompanied by the vibration of hull structure. Where there is no external effect arising out of unbalanced moments there may be an increase in load on the main bearings around the mid length of the crank shaft. Apart from ease of manufacture the semi built crankshafts became popular in slow speed direct couple engines. This was due to the ability of the crankshaft to be cast or forged in steel with two webs and crankpin forming one piece. By enlarging the size of the crankpin and boring it out , a very stiff section could be formed. This together with the fact that the web does not encircle the crank pin as in fully built crank shafts, reduces the out of balance rotation weight at the crank pin and makes it less difficult to achieve the balance required. Some crankshafts are balanced by varying the size of the holes in the crankpins and casting a balance weight section within the engine flywheel. If a constrained piece of elastic material is loaded , for instance a crosshead pin , deformation occurs. When the load is removed the deformed material returns to its original condition. In returning to its original condition the elastic strain energy stored in the deformed material is converted to kinetic energy which causes the material to move beyond the point of zero strain. The movement continues until the kinetic energy is again converted to strain energy and the material is again in a deformed condition. The action is again repeated as the deformed material revert to the position of zero strain. The action continues and the material is said to be vibrating. The motion is described as free or natural harmonic vibration. Axial and transverse vibrations occur in revolving shafts. All materials when vibrating experience some resistance which dissipates the energy that is causing the vibration. Finally the vibration will die away and and the vibrating part become static. The resistance and its action is referred to as damping. This is made up of internal and external resistance. The internal resistance is caused by the resistance of particle to motion. The external resistance is due to resistance set up by the medium in which the part is vibrating. As the amplitude increases the damping action also increases. When a free vibration is damped the energy change at each oscillation is gradually reduced. Amplitude too gradually gets reduced until it becomes zero.

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FORCED VIBRATIONS

Forced vibration occur when the vibrating body is subjected to rhythmatically applied force or load. The initial motion of vibration is complicated in nature and consists of both free and natural vibrations and forced vibration. The natural vibration rapidly dies away and the forced vibration continues under the action of the rythmatically applied force. The frequency of a forced vibration is the same as the frequency of the rythmatically applied force. The rapid decay of natural vibration is sometimes referred to as transient vibration . Any elastic system has a natural vibration which will have some frequency. If the system is subjected to forced vibration and the frequency of the rythmatically applied forces is very near or same as the natural frequency of the elastic system , resonance occurs. When the frequency of the applied force approaches the natural frequency of the elastic system the amplitude increases at an alarming rate. The amplitude is equivalent to strain As stress is proportional to strain , stress also increases at an alarming rate. Failure can finally result. If the object vibrating with a fundamental frequency the harmonics would be vibrations having frequencies which are whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency. If the fundamental frequency is 4 cycles per second , the second harmonic will be 2 x 4 = 8, and the 4th harmonic will be 4 x 4 = 16 cycles per second. In a directly couples slow speed engine the shafting system is made up of a series of large masses connected by a relatively slender or flexible shafts. At the aft end the largest mass is the propeller. This is connected to the engine flywheel by a long shaft; being long relative to its diameter , it is naturally flexible. The two constraints are the masses of the propeller and the flywheel. Each crank can also be considered as constraints connected to a relatively flexible journal. If two masses of different values are fastened at each end of a flexible shaft supported on frictionless bearings the pattern of vibration is as explained. Imagine that a straight line has been scribed along the shaft longitudinally between the two masses . Vibration would start by giving masses some angular displacement in opposite directions. If it could be made to turn slowly so that the scribed line would be visible The scribed line would be seen to go through a swinging movement so that the right handed and left handed helixes are formed. It would also be noticed that the scribed line was a radial or angular movement which took place about some point which remained fixed while the rest of the shaft was torsion ally vibrating . On one side of the fixed point the shaft would swing in one direction while on other side it would be swinging in the opposite direction. The fixed point is referred to as the node or nodal point. The periodic time would be the same for the sections on each side of the node , and the node would be nearer to the larger mass The amplitude of the larger mass would be less than the amplitude of the smaller mass.

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Effect of two harmonic motions having the same frequency but not occurring at the same time.

The two harmonics are plotted separately on the same time base, but with time difference correctly positioned. The vectors of each harmonic motion are then added geometrically to obtain the third periodic motion. The term phase angle applies only to two harmonics with the same frequency value. Also the two periodic motions are plotted on the same time base and the ordinates are added algebraically to obtain the combined effect.The time difference between the two harmonics is referred to as phase angle It is possible to break down a combined form of a set of periodic motions into the basic forms from which it was obtained. Sometimes the basic forms are referred to as harmonics. This involves good knowledge of mathematics. Such as Fourier Analysis.

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If a mass is located between two flexible shaft sections and the others on each side of the central mass and if the whole system is supported on a pair of frictionless bearings it can be shown that there are two modes of natural torsional vibrations. The system is sometimes referred to as a three-mass system. Generally it can be assumed that the number of nodes will be one less the number of masses in the system., or equal to the number of lengths of elastic connecting shaft sections. In a system in which a six cylinder , direct drive , slow speed engine is connected to a propeller , how many modes of natural vibration could such a system have.? If each crank is considered as a mass there will be six masses within the engine, the mass of the flywheel, and the mass of the propeller. This sums up to eight masses. The possible number of nodes could be up to seven. From this it may be assumed that there could be seven different modes of vibration. The first mode of vibration would have one node, the second two nodes and so on up to seven. Generally, the lower modes of vibration are investigated and analyzed as these are generally of more importance. The higher modes of vibration are often outside the operating speed range. A graph of the turning moment from a single cylinder engine is made up from a combination of the forces acting on the pistons and the inertia forces from the running gear. The turning moment reaches a peak each 720 degrees of crank rotation in a four stroke engine and each 360 degrees for a two stroke cycle engine. In a multi cylinder engine there will be a peak for each cylinder. In a four stroke cycle engine the number of peaks therefore equal to the number of cylinders firing in 720 degree of crank rotation. Or half the number of cylinders for 360 degree of rotation. In a two stroke engine the number of peaks per revolution will be equal to the number of cylinders. If the peaks per 360 degrees of crank rotation are multiplied by the engine revs/ min we can get a frequency per minute. If the frequency is similar to any one of the natural frequencies of the engine shafting system we have a resonant condition. The speed of the engine in revs/min at which the resonant condition occurs is referred to as the critical speed. The higher stresses associated with resonant conditions start to build up as the engine speed approaches critical speed. The unsafe stresses on either side of the critical speed are referred to as flank stresses. The barred speed range of the engine is the range of speed from the beginning of build up of unsafe flank stresses to the dying away of these stresses at some higher speed. The engine therefore must not be operated at speeds within the barred range. The increase in the distance between the masses reduces the natural frequency of the system conversely the reduction increases the natural frequency. The increase in size of one of the masses result in increase in mass moment of inertia and will cause a reduction in natural frequency of the system and the converse is equally true. An increase in shaft diameter will make the shaft stiffer ; consequently the natural frequency of the system will be increased.

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If the torsional vibration characteristic of a preliminary design of a shafting system is found unsatisfactory say for instance a diesel generator the critical speed is taken outside the operating speed of the engine , usually by increasing the torsional stiffness of the shafting system. If the shafting system is associated with propulsion machinery it becomes more difficult to modify the natural frequency of the system as usually more than one mode of vibration must be covered. If alterations to the torsional stiffness of shafting , or changing the values or location of the masses does not give the desired results , additional masses must be brought into the system. Sometimes they are in the form of a damper or detuner. In geared propulsion systems , couplings giving some damping effect can be fitted between the engines and the gear box.

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BALANCING OF IN LINE ENGINES

The considerations to be met are those of even torque from equal firing intervals, grouping of cylinders for turbo charging , where this applies and the external balance of both forces and couples INTERNAL COUPLES Six cylinder crankshaft which is inherently in complete balance is in the form of two three-cylinder crankshafts, one of which is a mirror image of the other . Each three cylinder portion has a complete balance of forces , but has unbalanced revolving primary and secondary couples. The unbalanced couples of each three cylinder portion balance and neutralize each other in the complete six cylinder crankshaft but they tend to cause the shaft to whirl as seen below. This movement has to be restrained by the bearings. In some engine designs , the pitch of the middle two cylinders is increased to accommodate a larger center bearing. The six cylinder crankshaft has been used here only as an example. Internal couples of the same nature arise in the great majority of engines and impose mechanical loads on the bearings and the engine frame. Crank with balance weights are sometimes used to counteract these effects even when they are not required to achieve external balance.

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Vibrations
Natural vibrations If a body which is held by elastic members is displaced and released it will start to vibrate In making to move from its initial equilibrium position work is performed on it and this gets stored as strain energy in the supporting members.On releasing it will accelerate back to its original position . The strain energy of the supports being converted to kinetic energy of the body ,increasing its velocity.. When it reaches to its original position all the strain energy have been converted into kinetic energy and the velocity of the body will be maximum.The motion overshoots the original position,and while giving up the kinetic energy , the strain energy is once again stored in the supports but this time in the opposite sense.The body will come to rest when all the kinetic energy has been converted to strain energy ,the motion will then be repeated in the opposite direction and this process will continue indefinitely.A vibration of this kind , in which after the initial displacement ,no external forces act and the motion is sustained by internal forces and exchange of energy is termed free or natural vibrations. Damped Vibrations In reality the formerly explained process is not perpetual as the energy in the system is gradually dissipated ,usually in the form of heat,by both external and internal resistances to the motion of the body.The vibration dies away and the body finally comes to rest at its original position.This is termed damped vibration. Forced Vibrations The operating cycle and combustion forces give rise to rythmatic disturbances.If such disturbances are applied periodically the body will vibrate with the same frequency as this applied disturbing force.This is termed forced frequency. Resonance If the frequency of the formerly stated disturbing force vibrates the body which equals or same as the natural vibration of the system a condition known as resonance will will occur. A small periodic force can then give rise to large uncontrollable effect .

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 Forms of Mechanical Vibrations Mechanical vibrations can occur in three forms. To explain this we can obtain a simple system consisting of a flywheel suspended by a light shaft.The flywheel has a mass and the shaft from which it is suspended is elastic and of negligible mass and rigidly fixed at its upper end. If it vibrate in a straight path parallel to the axis of the shaft the shaft will be compressed and extended.This is termed (a) longitudinal vibration. If all particles of the flywheel vibrate perpendicular to the axis of the shaft the material will be bent and straightened in the opposite directions.This is (b) transverse vibration. If all particles vibrate in circular arcs whose centers lie on the axis of the shaft the material will be alternatively twisted and untwisted in opposite direction.This is termed torsional vibration.

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FREQUENCY OF FREE VIBRATIONS The system described in the previous slide is the displacement of the flywheel from its equilibrium position caused a force to be exerted on it due to the stiffness of the shaft which will be proportional to the displacement.Its acceleration therefore ,also proportional to its displacement. If a body oscillates about an equilibrium position in such a way that the acceleration towards the equilibrium position is directly proportional to it displacement from the equilibrium position it is said to be in Simple Harmonic Motion. Therefore the periodic time for a complete oscillation is given by

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Let M = mass of the flywheel S = stiffness of shaft ie the force required at the flywheel to produce unit displacement Then the restoring force = S x displacement But the restoring force also = M x acceleration

Therefore acceleration / displacement = S/M which is a constant As explained earlier as acceleration is proportional to its displacement from the equilibrium position (which is a constant) this is said to be in simple harmonic motion, Where the frequency as per previous explanation is given by

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Frequency of Damped Vibrations. A body seen here is a generator set mounted on a flexible mountings an equivalent to the simple system which was explained with the addition of damping.The dashpot represents the resistance to movement and are partly represented by the medium in which the vibration takes place and partly due to the internal friction or hysteresis of the material of the elastic mountings. On rubber mountings the hysteresis damping can be quite high.Could be a a purposely introduced damper to avoid resonance. However when considering damping it is usually regarded as the force proportional to the speed of movement which is perfectly suitable for viscous damping..It is thus analyzed as M = mass of the body S = stiffness of the spring f = damping force per unit velocity y = displacement at time t

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19

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Transmission of Vibration What was concentrated earlier is the vibration of the body.However at times we have to consider the amount of vibration that is transmitted to the structure which supports the spring mounting.In other words it is transmissibility,which is the ratio of transmitted force to the impressed force.If the engine is mounted on the springs the periodic force originates internally from the engine.If the force is varied slowly the mass will move with it,compressing and extending the spring.The force at the lower end of the spring vary according to the compression of the spring.Transmissibility is unity. If the force variation is rapid the force alternates with high frequency.The heavy mass of the engine will not be able to follow this alternating force.The compressing and extending of the spring is very small . In between these two conditions lies the case of resonance where the applied force is the same frequency as the natural frequency of the engine on its mountings.Here the spring compression and extension will be very large. So damping influence transmissibility in a rather different way from which it influences vibration. In the next slide a family of curves are seen where all the curves intersect at a point which corresponds to a frequency ratio of root 2. At values for the frequency ratio above root 2 ,the transmitted force is less than the disturbing force.. Values below root 2 the transmitted force is greater than the disturbing force. At resonance it could be infinity.
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For undamped or very lightly damped spring mountings ,therefore natural frequency must be very low so that in operation the disturbing frequency ratio is very high,giving transmission in the low transmissibility region. Going back to the curves it could be seen that damping can only reduce transmissibility when the disturbing frequency is lower than root 2 times the natural frequency,which is the region which the spring mounting makes matters worse. On the other hand for all values of disturbing frequency to natural frequency ratio where the presence of damping increases the transmissibility. For flexible mounting to be used they must be arranged to give the system a natural frequency is lower than the forcing frequency.If they are very flexible then the natural frequency is best arranged so that it is lower to the corresponding to the starting revs/min of the engine.If such low frequency cannot be used in some practical cases due to various reasons stiffer mounting is used but necessary to include damping if trouble is to be avoided in running up to full speed operation.

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Hull Vibration The hull is a beam supported by a fluid and carrying a complex system of loads.Could vibrate on 2,3 or more nodes.There will be a different frequency in each manner which will become higher as the number of nodes is increased.Excitation of these modes of vibration may arise from resonance with unbalanced forces and couples of the engine.,propeller or other periodic disturbance.If the engine is located at a node the unbalanced forces of the engine are less likely to excite hull vibrations.On the other hand unbalanced couples are less likely to excite vibration if the engine is situated at an anti node.Hull vibrations are sometimes cured by the addition of out of balance forces to the shafting.
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 VIBRATION DAMPING Depending on the size and type of the ship the hull into which engine fits offers different damping characteristics.Axial crankshaft vibration damping perhaps make use of top bracing to combat problems due to lateral vibration of the upper part Fitting of counterweights to the cranks of a particular cylinder provides some degree of vertical balance but the moments which are of first and second degree would still exist.They are countered by fitting moment compensators.First order acts as the same speed and the second order moments act as twice the speed.Both compensators function in the same way,apply a varying force,which result in a moment that opposes the existing moment that cause the vibration.Rotating weights produce centrifugal forces and if a horizontal compensating force is required two weights are used.,rotating in opposite direction such that their vertical components of the centrifugal force cancel each other out and their horizontal movements add together.In many instances the stiffness of the hull absorbs the horizontal forces of vibration.A compensator can be introduced to the chain drive or gear drive for the camshaft.Second order moments are counter 01/02/2014 25

Acted in a similar way but the masses rotate at twice the speed of the engine.Depending on the value of the second order moment the compensators can be located at the after end of the engine and could be driven by the camshaft.or located at the end driven by a separate drive.

Two and three node hull vibration.

Engines having out of balance forces could cause a two node,three node or multi node form of vibration if it is located between nodes.This is shown when engine is located at point The upward and downward acting forces coming out of engine create a push and pull action on the hull structure which leads to vibration. Engines having out of balance moments may cause vibration if located at points marked B.The out of balance moments create a couple:when this couple acts in way of any node the rocking action coming out of the engine acts on the hull and can lead to vibration. If the engine operating at a speed which coincides with the natural hull frequency a resonant condition will arise and the vibration amplitudes will become excessive.A change of engine speed will give the desired effect.

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1st order moments

1st order moments act in both vertical and horizontal direction. For B&W two stroke engines with standard balancing these are of the same magnitudes. For engines with five cylinders or more , 1st order moments is rarely of any significance for the ship with B&W engines. It can however , be of a disturbing magnitude in four cylinder engines. Resonance with a 1st order moment occur for hull vibrations with 2 and/or 3 nodes. See fig 7.01 on the next slide. This resonance can be calculated with reasonable accuracy, and the calculation will show whether compensator is necessary or not on four cylinder engines.

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VIBRATION ASPECTS OF B&W The vibration characteristics of the two-stroke low speed diesel engines can for practical purposes be, split into four categories, and if the adequate countermeasures are considered from the early project stage, the influence of the excitation sources can be minimised or fully compensated. In general, the marine diesel engine may influence the hull with the following; External unbalanced moments - These can be classified as unbalanced 1st and 2nd order external moments, which need to be considered only for certain cylinder numbers. - Guide force moments Axial vibrations in the shaft system Torsional vibrations in the shaft system. The external unbalanced moments and guide force moments are illustrated in Fig 7.02. In the following , a brief description is given of their origin and of the proper countermeasures needed to render them harmless.

External unbalanced moments

The inertia forces originating from the unbalanced rotating and reciprocating masses of the engine create unbalanced external moments although the external forces are zero. Of these moments , only the 1st order (producing one cycle per revolution) and the 2nd order (two cycles per revolution) need to be considered , and then only for engines with a low number of cylinders . The inertia forces on engines with more than six cylinders tend, more or less, to neutralize themselves. Countermeasures have to be taken if hull resonance occurs in the operating speed range, and if the vibration level leads to higher accelerations and/or velocities given by international standards or recommendations ( for instance related to special agreement between ship owner and shipyard) The natural frequency of the hull depends on the hulls rigidity and distribution of masses, whereas the vibration level at resonance depends mainly on the magnitude of the external moment and the engines position in relation to the vibration nodes of the sh ip.

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A resonance with the vertical moment for the 2nd node hull vibration can often be critical, whereas the resonance with the horizontal moment occurs at a higher speed than the nominal because of the higher natural frequency of the horizontal hull vibrations. As standard, four-cylinder engines are fitted with adjustable counterweights, as illustrated in Fig. 7.03 (slide 28) These can reduce the vertical moment to a significant value (although, increasing correspondingly the horizontal moment), so this resonance is easily dealt with. A solution with zero horizontal moment is also available. In rare cases , where the 1st order moment will cause resonance with both the vertical and the horizontal hull vibration mode in the normal speed range of the engine, a 1st order compensator, as shown in Fig 7.04, in the previous slide can be introduced, in the chain tightener wheel, reducing the 1st order moment to a harmless value. The compensator comprises two counter-rotating masses rotating at the same speed as the crankshaft. When a first order moment compensator fitted aft, the horizontal moment will decrease to between 0 and 30% of the value . Since resonance with both the vertical and horizontal hull vibration mode is rare, the standard engine is not prepared for the fitting of such compensators.

2nd order moments

The second order moment acts only in the vertical direction for this engine. Precautions need only to be considered for four, five and six cylinder engines. Resonance with the second order moment may occur at hull vibrations with more than three nodes. see Fig 7.05. Contrary to the calculation of natural frequency with 2 and 3 nodes, the calculation of the 4 and 5 node natural frequencies for the hull is rather comprehensive procedure and, despite advanced calculation methods, is often not very accurate. Consequently only a rather uncertain basis for decision is available relating to the natural frequency as well as the position of the nodes in relation to the main engine. A 2nd order moment compensator comprises two counter-rotating masses running twice the engine speed. 2nd order moment compensators are not included in the basic extent of delivery.

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Several solutions, as shown in Fig 7.06, are available to cope with the 2nd order moment , out of which the most efficient one can be chosen in the individual case. 1) 2) 3) 4) No compensators, if considered unnecessary on the basis of natural frequency, nodal point and size of the 2nd order moment. A compensator mounted on the aft end of the engine, driven by the main chain drive. A compensator mounted on the front end , driven from the crankshaft through a separate chain drive. Compensators on both aft and fore end , completely eliminating the external 2nd order moment

Briefly, it can be stated that compensators positioned in a node or close to it, will be inactive. In such a case, solution (4) should be considered. A decision regarding the vibrational aspects and the possible use of compensators must be taken at the contract stage If no experience is available from sister ships , which should be the best basis for deciding whether compensators are necessary or not, it is advisable to make calculations to determine which of the solutions (1), (2), (3), or (4) should be applied. If compensator(s) are omitted, the engine can be delivered prepared for fitting of compensators later on. The decision for preparation must also be taken at the contract stage. Measurements taken during the sea trial, or later in service and with fully loaded ship , will be able to show whether compensator(s) have to be fitted or not. If no calculations are available at the contract stage , it is advised to order the engine with the second order moment compensator on the aft end. And to make preparations for the fitting of compensator on the front end. If it is decided not to use compensators and, furthermore, not to prepare the main engine for later fitting, another solution can be used, if annoying vibrations should occur. An electrically driven compensator option synchronized to the correct phase relative to the external force or moment can neutralize the excitation. This type of compensator needs an extra seating fitted, preferably in the steering gear room where deflections are largest and the effect of compensator will therefore be greatest. The electrically driven compensator will not give rise to distorting stresses in the hull, but it is more expensive than the engine mounted compensators (2), (3), and (4). More than 70 compensators of this type are in service and have given good results.

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Power Related Unbalance (PRU)

To evaluate if there is a risk that 1st and 2nd order external moments will excite disturbing hull vibrations, the concept Power related Unbalance can be used as a guidance. PRU = External moment Nm/kW Engine power With the PRU-value, stating the external moment relative to the engine power, it is possible ton give an estimate of the risk of hull vibrations for a specific engine. Based on the service experience from greater number of large ships with engines of different types and cylinder numbers , the PRU- values have been classified in four groups as follows; PRU Nm/kW Need for compensator from 0 to 60.not relevant, from 60 to 120 unlikely from 120 to 220 .likely above 220 most likely

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The actual values for the MC-engines are shown in Fig 7.07. In the table, the external moments (M1 ) are stated at the speed (n1) and MCR rating in point L1 of the layout diagram. For other speeds (nA) , the corresponding external moments (MA) are calculated by means of the formula MA = M1 x (nA )2 kNm ( n1 )2

Force Moments
The so-called guide force moments are caused by the transverse reaction forces acting on the crossheads due to the connecting rod/crankshaft mechanism. These moments may excite engine vibrations., moving the engine top athwart ships and causing a rocking (excited by H-moment) or twisting (excited by X-moment) movement of the engine as illustrated in Fig 7.08. The guide force movements corresponding to the MCR rating (L1) are stated in the table. The guide force moments are harmless except when resonance vibrations occur in the engine /double bottom system. As this system is very difficult to calculate with the necessary accuracy MAN B&W Diesel strongly recommend , as standard, that top bracing is installed between the engines upper platform brackets and the casing side. The top bracing comprises stiff connections (links) with friction plates which allow adjustment to the loading conditions of the ship, or alternatively a hydraulic top bracing. With both types of top bracing the above mentioned natural frequency will increase to a level where resonance will occur above the normal engine speed.

Axial Vibrations
When the crank throw is loaded by the gas pressure through the connecting rod mechanism , the arms of the crank throw deflect in the axial direction of the crankshaft, exciting axial vibrations. Through the thrust bearing, the system is connected to the ship s hull Generally, only zero-node axial vibrations are of interest. Thus the effect of the additional bending stresses in the crankshaft and possible vibrations of the ships structure due to the reaction force in the thrust bearing are to be considered. An axial damper is fitted as standard to all MC engines minimising the effect of axial vibrations.

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Torsional Vibrations. The reciprocating and rotating masses of the engine including the crankshaft, the thrust shaft, the intermediate shaft(s) the propeller shaft and the propeller are for calculation purposes considered as a system of rotating masses (inertias) interconnected by torsional springs. The gas pressure of the engine acts through the connecting rod mechanism with a varying torque on each crank throw, exciting torsional vibration in the system with different frequencies.

In general, only torsional vibrations with one node need to be considered. The main critical order . Causing the largest extra stresses in the shaft line , is normally the vibration with order equal to the number of cylinders, i.e. five cycles per revolution on a five cylinder engine. This resonance is positioned at the engine speed corresponding to the natural frequency divided by the number of cylinders.

The torsional vibration condition may, for certain installations require a torsional vibration damper, Based on the statistics, this may need arise for the following type of installation. Plants with controllable pitch propeller Plants with unusual shafting layout and for special owner/yard requirements. Plants with 8 and 12 cylinder engines. Four, five and six-cylinder engines, require special attention. On account of the heavy excitation, the natural frequency of the system with one node vibration should be situated away from the normal operating range, to avoid its effect. This can be achieved by changing the masses and /or the stiffness so as to give a much higher , or much lower, natural frequency, called under critical or overcritical running, respectively.

Owing to the very large variety of possible shafting arrangements that may be used in combination with a specific engine, only detailed torsional vibration calculations of a specific plant can determine whether or not torsional vibration damper is necessary.

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Under critical running

The natural frequency of the one-node vibration is so adjusted that resonance with the main critical order occurs about 35 45% above the engine speed at specified MCR. Such under critical conditions can be realised by choosing right shaft system, leading to relatively high natural frequency. The characteristics of an undercritical system are normally; Relatively short shafting system. Probably no tuning wheel Turning wheel with relatively low inertia Large diameters of shafting, enabling the use of shafting material with a moderate ultimate strength, but requiring careful shaft alignment, ( due to relatively high bending stresses) Without barred speed range When running under critical , significant varying torque at MCR conditions of about 100-150% of the mean torque is to be expected. This torque (propeller torsional amplitude) induces a significant varying propeller thrust which, under adverse conditions might excite annoying longitudinal vibrations on engine/double bottom and / or deck house. The yard should be aware of this and ensure that the complete aft body structure of the ship, including the double bottom in the engine room, is designed to be able to cope with the described phenomena. In resonance within the operating range cannot be avoided in this way , the following method can be used.

Overcritical running
The natural frequency of the one-node vibration is so adjusted that resonance with the main critical order occurs about 30-70% below the engine speed at specified MCR. Such overcritical conditions can be realised by choosing an elastic shaft system, leading to a relatively low natural frequency. The characteristics of overcritical conditions are ;

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The characteristics of overcritical conditions are

Tuning wheel may be necessary on crankshaft fore end. Turning wheel with relatively high inertia, Shafts with relatively small diameters , requiring shafting material with a relatively high ultimate tensile strength. With barred speed range of about 10% with respect to the critical engine speed.

Torsional vibrations in overcritical conditions may , in special cases , have to be eliminated by the use of torsional vibration damper. Overcritical layout is normally applied for engines with more than four cylinders. Please note ; B&W do not include any tuning wheel or torsional vibration damper in the standard course of supply, as a proper countermeasure has to be found after torsional vibration calculations for the specific plant , and after decesion has been taken if and where a barred speed range might be acceptable.

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Vertical 1. 2. 3. 4.

Multicylinder engine forces and moments. Primary and secondary disturbing forces arising out of reciprocating parts and accompanied by their moments Horizontal vertical forces and moments arising out of centrifugal forces from revolving parts. Forces and moments from guide forces. Reaction of engine structure due to torque from crankshaft.

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Ship machinery installations have two sources of excitation. 1. Main engine and the 2 Propeller.In one case of a Sulzer Diesel,in which two unequal sized low speed engines were geared to a single controllable pitch propeller with a pair of pto driven generators some eleven different operational configurations were possible. Vibration characteristics of low speed two stroke engines could be split into four categories.
External unbalanced moments ; these can be classified as unbalanced 1st and 2nd order external moments which need to be considered only for engines with certain cylinder numbers. Guide force moments Axial vibrations in the shaft system. Torsional vibrations in the shaft system. External unbalanced moments. The inertia forces originating from the unbalanced rotating and reciprocating masses of the engine create unbalanced external moments although the external forces are zero.Of these moments only the 1st order and the 2nd order need to be considered.Countermeasures are to be taken if hull resonance occurs in the operating speed range.The natural frequency of the hull depends on its rigidity and distribution of masses ,while the vibration level at resonance depends mainly on the magnitude of the external moment and the engines position in relation to the vibration nodes of the ship.

GUIDE FORCE MOMENTS These are the transverse reaction forces acting on the crossheads due to the obliquity of the connecting rod..These moments may excite engine vibrations,moving the engine top athwart ships and causing a rocking.(excited by X-Moment) or twisting (exited by X01/02/2014 43

Or twisting (excited by X-moment) movement of the engine.Guide force moments are not detrimental except when resonant vibrations occur in the engine/double bottom system.B & W recommends standard top bracing to be installed between the engines upper platform brackets and the casing side for their two stroke models.With both types of top bracing that have already been explained in the previous lessons ,the natural frequency will increase to a level where resonance will occur above the normal speed range.

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With the top bracing of main engine , it will be possible in most cases to obtain such a high natural frequency figure of the system. engine ships side ships bottom that annoying vibrations of the engine top or ships hull can be avoided. Top bracing is usually mounted on the uppermost platform brackets on the starboard side for this particular engine. In this case the top bracing is with friction shims. This should be checked at the same intervals as for holding down bolts in order to ensure that the tightening force is correct. Top bracing checking shall be carried out on the fore and aft ends of the engine , and also in the middle. Checking is to be by sight as well as using dial gauges to ascertain whether the relative movement occur between the fastening on positions.( A relative movement larger than 0.02 mm are ascertained, increase the tightening force by 40%. At the same time check the hydraulic pressure required for loosening all the top bracings. If the vibrations have still not disappeared increase the tightening force a further 40% and again check the loosening pressure. Checking for possible settings of the ships hull should be made 3-4 times a year. In a tanker further measurements should be taken after loading , and unloading and also when the ship has had a rough trip. The draught of the ship should be noted at each measuring.

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Top bracing is not necessary for all engines and whether ir is fitted or not depends on factors such as the number of cylinders and the stiffness of the engine structure. Lateral forces due to reactions at the crossheads and main bearings cause the engine to vibrate in a sideways direction either in X or H form modes. Such lateral or sideways vibration is not detrimental to the engine itself but can cause damage to attached parts such as turbochargers and pipe work. It can also cause vibration in the engine room and ships structure. Side stays are used to dampen out lateral vibration of this type. Which are fitted at the engine uppermost platform brackets. Pairs of side stays, port and starboard, are located at the forward and after ends of the engine. With larger engines intermediate stays may also be employed. This top bracing may be of friction or hydraulic damp type, the former needs to be mounted at stiff locations in the hull structure. Both systems perform equally well but they need to be correctly set, checked frequently and adjusted as required. It is essential that there is always the correct frictional grip from the friction shims., and the bolts of the friction element must be tightened to the correct hydraulic pressure or torque when the engine is under operating conditions. The hydraulically damped side stay must be checked for leaks and the damping valve must be set at the correct value. To allow for optimum damping effect.

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HYDRAULICALLYBADJUSTABLE TOP BRACING

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AXIAL VIBRATIONS Axial vibration characteristic is necessary for low speed two stroke engines.When the crank throw is loaded by the gas pressure through the connecting rod mechanism the arms of the crank throw deflect in the axial direction of the crankshaft ,exciting axial vibrations.These vibrations are transferred to the ships hull through the thrust bearing. The effect of the additional bending stresses in the crankshaft and the resulting vibrations in the ships structure due to the reaction force on the thrust bearing are accountable. To minimize this MC engines are fitted with an axial damper.to counteract axial vibrations.Some are fitted with axial vibration monitor for alarm and slowdown.Such dampers are only necessary for engines with large cylinder numbers.This is sometimes called longitudinal vibration and are confined to the main shaft line embracing crankshaft and propeller shaft.The axial excitation is not transmitted through PTO gear boxes.(power take off) Resonance with regard to axial vibrations corresponded to the number of cylinders which would have otherwise caused too high stresses in the crank throws. STRESSES IN ENGINE 1 weight of engine components imposing static weight 2 Gas pressure which is alternating

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Centrifugal force at crank

Inertia forces of moving parts.

Combustion chamber is pressurized which is contained by the cylinder head.This pressure

due to ignition pressure is transmitted to the cylinder cover The same acts on the piston crown,but at TDC and and on its way down it is opposed by the inertia forces and finally the inertia forces ,modified by inertia acts on the two main bearings on either side of the cylinder center.At bottom dead center only the inertia forces acts on the main bearing. The forces then applied finally to the bedplate through the engine structure. .It is the practice to relieve the structure of this tensile load by introducing long tie bolts or tension bolts.The gas load is transmitted to the bedplate.The magnitude of the tie rod loading becomes cyclic as gas and inertia forces vary with the angular displacement of the crank.When the engine is stationery the tie rods are pre stressed holding the structure rigidly together.While in operation at the bottom dead center the major loading on the structure is the inertia force which act on the bearing and under its effect the bed plate is subjected to a bending moment.

The firing force at top dead center acts on the cylinder cover .The same force acts on the piston crown and is transmitted to the main bearing through the connecting rod.The tensile force of the structure flows through the rods.The foundation bolts take up any out of balance force component and that due to tilting moment
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The tensile load that fluctuates stretch the tie rod from the minimum value (initial tension) to a maximum value (due to the highest load) Even though there is no stress reversal ( by correct initial tension) as it is subjected to repetition the endurance to fatigue is of great importance.Hence the importance of the correct initial tension is invaluable. Hydraulic tightening is advantageous as it permits the gradual loading of the predetermined pressure .As the piston reciprocates the The power ie work per second is equal to Force on piston x Piston sliding velocity.Since this power is converted to rotary motion by the crankshaft , it could be stated (neglecting losses) F piston x Piston sliding velocity = Torque x (angular velocity)

INERTIA FORCES
The piston accelerates and decelerates.At any instant the inertia force is given by P = Mf Where M = mass of sliding piston + mass of connecting rod associated with the piston. f = acceleration at any angular position which is given by the expression

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other moving parts of the engine through the connecting rod.The pull exerted by the connecting rod introduces a force on the piston causing it to accelerate from the top centre position.The balancing of the engine is referred to the balancing of forces associated due to the acceleration of reciprocating parts ,and the balancing of centrifugal forces arising out of revolving parts. Hence the force arising out of piston acceleration has an effect on balance.The forces associated with each piston do not act in the same plane and couples are created as a result which must be taken into consideration when the complete balance of the engine is being studied.This form of balancing is associated with the dynamics of the various moving parts, and in consequence the gas load on the piston is not considered in the calculations covering the balance of these forces and couples.Nonetheless the gas load on the piston has to be considered when stresses are being calculated. While calculating the actual loads on X-head bearings ,slippers,piston pins and sides of piston skirts it is imperative to introduce a correction on the gas load on the piston by introducing the inertia loads arising out of the reciprocating parts. Newtons second law of motion is known as the force required to accelerate a mass ie Force = Mass x acceleration where M is the reciprocating mass and the acceleration of reciprocating parts is denoted f ( F=M x f } The first component consisting theta of the equation is the primary disturbing force and is comparatively easy to balance because it has an action similar to centrifugal force. The second component consisting (2 x theta) is the secondary disturbing force and is more difficult to balance. At top centre the piston is in effect pulled down by the connecting rod to give the acceleration, and the reaction to this pull tend to lift the bed plate. While the piston is reaching bottom centre it is retarded, and the reaction from the retarding force tend to push the bed plate down. When the piston moves upwards from the bottom centre the reaction to the accelerating force continues to push the bed plate down until maximum piston velocity is reached. Beyond this point as the piston approaches top centre moving upwards , the retarding force reaction tends to lift the bedplate up.

Considering the balance of the moving parts we will omit for the moment, the the gas pressure.The piston is connected with the

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What was said in the previous slide can be summarized by stating that the PRIMARY inertia forces from the piston and the reciprocating masses cause the bed plate to press hard down on the chocks when the piston approaches, goes through and leaves the bottom centre position. Similarly the bed plate tends to lift when the piston approaches, goes through and leaves the top centre position. By placing balance weights on the crank webs at 180 degrees to the crankpin, the primary disturbing forces from the reciprocating parts can be balanced.These balance weight exert a centrifugal force when rotating in opposition to the primary inertia forces associated with the acceleration of the reciprocating parts.The vertical forces imposed on the bedplate in vertical engines from the reciprocating parts are balanced by the centrifugal forces coming from the balance weights. Nevertheless when the cranks are at 90 degrees to the line of piston stroke, the centrifugal forces from the balance weights tend to rock the engine transversely.Hence a compromise is achieved and it is customary to balance out vertical primary forces only partially, by employing balance weights lighter than that would be necessary for the complete balance. Hence keep the transverse disturbing force within reasonable limits.

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As seen in the previous slide the primary forces are governed by the mass of the reciprocating parts and the speed of rotation.The mass of the balance weights could be varied to suit the degree of balance required.The speed of the rotation is same for the reciprocating parts and the balance weights.In order to reduce the horizontal component caused by the balanced weights it is usual to partially balance the primary inertia forces.The reduction of the horizontal component reduces the side forces acting on the engine. Now let us examine the secondary disturbing forces. As seen from the equation derived before, if the engine running at constant speed the variables in the formula for the primary and secondary disturbing forces are the value of cos and cos2 .The table gives the values . It is seen that the secondary disturbing force reaches the maximum and minimum values twice in one revolution of the crank, although the primary disturbing force reaches a max and min value once. I.e. the secondary disturbing force go through two cycles while the primary disturbing force goes through one. This shows that it is possible to balance the secondary disturbing forces by introducing balancing masses which must revolve twice the crankshaft speed to accommodate the two cycles that occur in one revolution of the engine crankshaft. Done in practice by introducing two auxiliary balance weight shafts on either side of the engine plate, geared to run at twice the engine speed, and in opposite directions. When the piston is on top centre the balance weights on these shafts are in top centre. When the piston is at approx half stroke the balance weights on the aux shafts are in the bottom position. A set of balance weights is required for each piston and fitted in transverse plane to the piston.. As the aux shafts run in opposite directions the centrifugal forces on them balance out when the weights are in horizontal plane They are either acting outwards at the same time when the weights are outboard or both acting inwards when the weights are inboard.

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Cranks of the diesel engine are at an angle to each other and at any one instant there is a difference between the disturbing forces of two units as a result..This causes a moment due to the difference in the instantaneous values which are acting at a distance.These tend to rock the engine bedplate in a fore and aft plane.This attempt to force one end of the engine bed plate down and the opposite end up. To balance out these moments weights are fitted sometimes to annul.When a primary moment is being balanced the weights revolve same as the engine speed.They are timed or phased so that moments from the action of weights balances the moments produced by the engine. When a secondary moment is being balanced the weight revolve at twice the engine speed and are phased such that they balance out the secondary moments.These moments caused by the engine may lead to hull vibrations and the balance weights may assist in reducing same.To prevent a resonant condition that may arise due to the matching of the natural frequency of hull vibrations with the frequency of the moments,balance weights become necessary , especially when the engine is located at a nodal point. It must be noted that in opposed piston engines, the upper piston reciprocating parts consists of the piston,transverse beam and side rods and the weight is invariably greater than the reciprocating parts of the lower piston and in the primary disturbing force equation the value of r ,that is the length of the crank of the upper must be made smaller to make the primary disturbing force equal and opposite. This applies to engines where the lower piston is connected to centre crank.and upper is connected through side rods and con rods to a crank on either side of centre crank.These engines have no external primary forces or couples.The firing loads contained between upper and lower pistons and not transmitted to bedplate and main bearings and if at all it is much less than in ordinary engines,,and hence bedplates are made much lighter than other type of engines.Loads and inertia forces from individual pistons are transmitted through to the crankshaft from the centre and side rod bottom-end bearings. Now let us compare the primary disturbing forces of the reciprocating parts and the forces of the centrifugal parts.Primary disturbing forces vary in amount and constant in direction and the centrifugal forces constant in amount and vary in direction.The mass of the connecting rod and the bottom end bearing ,the crankpin and the part of the crank web sets up the centrifugal force, the vertical component which is algebraically additive to the inertia forces arising out of of the mass of the reciprocating parts. The horizontal

component tends to slide the engine bedplate from side to side.

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Plotted below are the curves for the primary and secondary inertia forces plotted as a function of crank rotation degrees. Diagram on the right below shows secondary balance weights and their horizontal components . When the balance weights are arranged as seen the horizontal component of each is balanced.Hence secondary inertia force can be completely balanced .A pair of balance weights is fitted at each crank position.The values of cos and cos2 and the crank angle as tabled in the previous slide is plotted. Cos2 has twice the number of peak values as cos for the same crank displacement.Secondary force balancer shafts.Some engines in the high speed range in line and V-type have auxiliary balancing shafts.These secondary line shafts reduces the loads coming on to the bed plate and holding down bolts.The centrifugal forces from the revolving balance weight on each shaft balance vertical secondary forces and in opposition to one another in the horizontal plane therefore balancing out as far as the engine structure is concerned, however impose a heavy loads on the individual aux shaft bearings.The bolts are subjected to initial tightening tensile stress and are enhanced by the maximum stress induced by the balancing weights on each revolution and hence the load is cyclic.Care must be taken to inspect them for tightness.

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Load is momentarily reversed on the upper half of the bearing of X-head and crankpin.This period force on the piston becomes tensile.and the load on the bearing is reversed from top half to the bottom half.This period of reversal of load promotes the proper lubrication of the crosshead.or gudgeon pin bush bearing in a 4-stroke engine. In two stroke engine the piston is always loaded with an unidirectional pressure during compression or firing.Hence the top and bottom end bolts are less likely to be overstressed due to inertia.

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The connecting rod performs both oscillatory and rotary motion.Part of it is associated and moving with the connecting rod.Another part is rotating with the crankshaft about the crank axis resulting an out of balance mass of the crank.Hence the actual conrod is converted for the purpose of analysis to an equivalent one with masses distributed at both ends When piston approaches TDC the force on the piston and its direction will depend on the algebraic sum of the gas force on the piston and the inertia forces.When the gas force is less during induction and exhaust processes of the four stroke engine , the inertia force predominate at crank angle 360 after the firing.and are taken up by the bottom end bolts.

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It is seen from the diagram that the crank and the connecting rod mechanism will have a horizontal component which must be taken up by the frame either via the liner (trunk engine) or the crosshead guide.The frame will have to bear the horizontal thrust varying according to crank position.This horizontal force will produce a pulsating tilting moment which remains mostly unbalanced.

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If the piston is some crank angle theta and is accelerating down ,the inertia force will tend to lift the engine.In one complete cycle the engine tends to jump up and down due to the inertia forces of reciprocating masses.It is important to state the difference between the unbalanced force due to reciprocating masses and that due to rotating masses.The reciprocating unbalanced force varies in magnitude but constant in direction.The rotating unbalanced force is constant in magnitude but varying in direction. For balancing , masses are added at the backward of crank webs diametrically opposite to the crank. While the unbalance due to rotating masses can be completely balanced by adding balance weight ,that of the reciprocating masses can be only partially balanced.

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By adding a balance mass equal to the reciprocating mass at the crank pin radius and diametrically opposite it the unbalance in the vertical plane could be removed.Since F1 the cos (0) cancel the vertical part it introduces the horizontal unbalance component Sin (0) The tendency of the engine is now to oscillate in the horizontal direction.Hence reciprocating masses cannot be completely balanced dynamically by adding rotary masses.A compromise is hence made by partially balancing the primary inertia force so that the maximum values are limited in either direction.The minimum unbalance is usually obtained when the balancing mass at the crank is half of the reciprocating mass. The analysis so far has been confined to one cylinder. But multicylinder is in effect an addition of several single cylinder engines grouped in line.The unbalanced forces arising out of each engine are out of phase by the crank angle between them. This requires a firing sequence to be selected so that the unbalanced forces mutually cancels out .For best results to achieve a minimum unbalance. In considering a firing sequence the following are noted. 1. Minimum of residual unbalance due to primary and secondary. 2. For optimum bearing loading the power distribution over the length of shaft 3. Even turning moment by selecting a firing interval and crank angle. 4. Exhaust grouping for a tuned exhaust. The engine is balanced not only for forces but also for moments.The generation of tilting

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The Secondary Unbalance

The secondary force,again as shown F s = M w2 r cos 2 / n

Fs

This is equal to the vertical component of a centrifugal force ,caused by a mass, M/4n at the same radius r,the radius of the crank pin ,but rotating at twice the speed.The secondary force therefore , be imagined as a vertical component of such a mass on a secondary crank which rotates at twice the speed of the actual crankshaft, in the same direction and which coincides with the actual crankshaft at inner dead centre.When the actual or primary crankshaft is at 90 deg to I.d.c. the secondary crank will be at 180 deg to I.d.c.and when the actual or primary crank is at 180 deg to I.d.c. the secondary crank will be at I.d.c. This is illustrated below.The revolving masses can be balanced by counter weights fitted on the crankshaft ,arranged so that their combined centre of gravity is in the same plane as the crank and their centrifugal forces is equivalent but opposite to that arising from the crank. The primary reciprocating force cannot be balanced by a single rotating counterweight although it is possible to balance it by two such weights rotating in opposite senses.External moments due to reciprocating and rotating masses .1 st order in both vertical and horizontal directions ,2nd order only in vertical direction.
=

M ( 2w )2 r cos 2 / 4n

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Moment has already been explained. The horizontal forces in the structure consist of 1. Component arising out of gas pressure. 2. Component resulting the inertia of piston. Hence the engine frame and the base is subjected to pulsating tilting moment which must be resisted at the foundation. As the gas force is varying the engine torque too would vary with respect to the crank angle.The crank is accelerated and decelerated in a revolution by the piston effort and the inertia forces.This produces a net angular irregularity. A flywheel is thus provided to keep the engine shaft rotating more evenly and to impose stability after a speed fluctuation.Flywheel stores energy.When the speed is in excess of the mean it absorbs energy to give out when the speed tend to decrease. The fluctuation of the speed has to be limited.The energy resulted with the speed variation of a flywheel is given by the expression
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Delivering same power to electric generators the engine driving the A.C. machine will require a larger flywheel as the steady state of power is within +/- 0.5% Transverse Vibrations The engine mounted vertically on a tank top will be excited vertically by periodic forces due to inertia forces that has already been explained. It has also been shown that the periodic unbalance force is transmitted to the engine frame as a guide load.The transverse forces produce a pulsating torque at the engine base which is resisted by reaction torque.The engine will set to vibrate on its seat with its natural frequency though amplitude of such vibrations is apparently small.If on the other hand The engine seating or the tank top are weak or vibrate at such frequency that it coincide with the revs of the engine ,the level will be enhanced.Critical condition will arise if the pulsating torque reaction coincides coincides or in phase with the transverse vibration caused by periodical horizontal forces on the structure.Higher level of thetrnsverse vibration dangerous to the engine foundation bolts ,intake ststem and to the turbocharger. Auxiliary medium speed engines are mounted with vibration eliminators. These may be elastic pads made of rubber shielded to protect destruction from oil.

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The out of balance force of a rotating mass is a rotating centrifugal force but the out of balance of the reciprocating mass is a reciprocating cyclic force along the line of operation. If the connecting rod were infinitely long the motion of the piston would be the component of the rotation of the crankpin in line with the piston axis.Because the conrod has a finite length the motion departs from Simple Harmonic and is effected by the length of the connecting rod. When the piston is pulled down from top dead center by a connecting rod which is short compared to the crankshaft throw as seen in the figure on the right it is displaced further than if the connecting rod were long.because the sideways movement of the bottom end of the connecting rod increases the vertical displacement.Similarly when the piston is moved upwards from a position near to the bottom dead center by a short connecting rod the swing of the rod to some extent is neutralized by the swing of the crank,and the vertical displacement is less than occurs to near TDC..Thus the acceleration downwards is not same as the acceleration upwards.So the secondary disturbing force require a correction in order to allow for the obliquity 01/02/2014 67

On the right the diagram represents the primary and secondary inertia forces for crank/connecting rod = Also seen how the primary and the secondary add together.TDC is taken as zero position The secondary force is much smaller in magnitude than the primary.Its relative size is proportional to the crank throw connecting rod ratio (1/n) and it oscillates twice the frequency. It is common practice to fit to the crankshaft counterweights larger than those required to balance only the revolving forces in order to achieve what is known as partial balance of the primary reciprocating forces.
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TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS
The flywheel suspended by an elastic shaft which was rigidly fixed at the upper end illustrated the torsional vibrations in the slide that was shown in the first slide. When referring to the this let q be the torsional stiffness of the shaft ,which is the torque required to twist the shaft through unit angular displacement.i.e one radian. --q = CJ/l derived from q/J = c.0/L when theta is one radian. C is the modulus of rigidity and J is the polar second moment of area of the cross section of the shaft. If I is the moment of inertia of the flywheel at any instant The restoring couple is equal to q x angular displacement .But the restoring couple also equals to I x angular acceleration . If this flywheel is of a larger moment of inertia the frequency will be lower and if the shaft is of greater stiffness the frequency will be higher. Even though this is seen so fundamental the most complex systems are made up of elements of this kind.In general increase the mass moment of inertia of flywheel lowers the natural frequency and increase the stiffness of the shafts raises the natural frequency.

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Most systems consisting of multiple rotors while rotating and transmitting power are associated with torsional vibrations.In vibration it is thus important to avoid resonance of exciting forces with the natural frequency. TWO ROTOR SYSTEM A simple two rotor system is seen on the right where two rotors are mounted at each end of the shaft .Though the system is mounted in bearings it takes no part in vibration and therefore iss eliminated.Rotors,if twisted in the opposite direction and released will commence vibrating moving in opposite directions and reaching the mean equilibrium position in each case at the same time.Though the shaft is twisted and untwisted at some point along the shaft lies a point where the material is undisturbed by vibration.This does not imply that that it will not be stressed as the whole shaft is subjected to uniform shear stress.This point at which the material lies undisturbed by the vibration is termed the node. If the shaft is clamped at the node each portion on either side of the node would vibrate with the same frequency but in opposite sense.Each portion of the system is then becomes our initial flywheel and the shaft system. 01/02/2014 70

Seen on the right are the expressions which derive the equation that is followed as the frequencies of the two parts of the system are the same. From the final solution it is clear that the node divides the length of the shaft in proportion to the moments of inertia of the two rotors. The straight line that was depicted in the previous slide and drawn at an angle through the node is termed the elastic line. This represents the twist along the shaft or the torsional strain and where it intersects the planes of the rotors A and B will be the relative amplitude of angular deflection of the rotors.

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Three Rotor System

The three rotor system you have seen on the previous slide which is mounted on a uniform shaft could vibrate in two ways as shown by the elastic line .A and B swings in one direction and whilst the other C in the opposite direction.The single node lies between B and C The other form is that the rotors A and C turning in one direction and B in the opposite direction.As before all rotors will reach their extreme positions at the same instant and will pass through the mean equilibrium position at the same instant with both form of vibration.The system can now analyzed by breaking down into the familiar small elements described at beginning of the chapter.The frequency of all three rotors ie the system must be the same . The equation would be quadratic with two roots one of which would be the solution to the one node vibration.If it is La we have chosen the distant will not be true node but will be the projection of the elastic line between rotors A and B to a point on the shaft about with rotor A would oscillate with the appropriate frequency.Substitution will give the length Lc

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MULTI ROTOR SYSTEM

To investigate the practical cases such as engine driving a propeller or some machinery rotating and reciprocating parts of each cylinder are represented by equivalent rotors and the propeller other driven electrical machine will follow suit.Two rotor system vibrates with one node and three rotor systems with two nodes.It follows that in general that in a multi rotor system which has many modes will have the nodes equal to number of rotors minus one.A solution mathematically is far too tedious unlike in the case of two or three rotors and hence a different approach is adopted. 0 will be the subscript for amplitude in radians of the torsional vibrations .If omega = 2 x pie x n where n is the frequency / sec.The maximum angular acceleration of a rotor at the extremity of its swing is omega2 x theta The torque which the rotor exerts on the shaft T = I x omega 2 x theta.When vibrating freely only torques on the system are the inertia torques and the algebraic sum is zero. Hence Summation T = 0 Summation (I x omega 2 x theta ) = 0 01/02/2014 74

In the original system the shaft is assumed to have negligible inertia so that there is no change of torque along the shaft.In consequence the difference between the amplitudes of adjacent rotors would be the angle of twist of the shaft due to the torque transmitted from one to the other. The expression that is seen a side consists of the rotor A which has the max inertia torque Ta and also the torque transmitted along the length l1 of the shaft.The angle of twist is given by this equation. The amplitude thetaa is assumed to be one radian for the sake of convenience.A value is then arbitrarily assumed for omega.Then the amplitudes could be calculated by using the equation.Then the sum of the products (I x theta ) for all the rotors are found According to the equation I x omega 2 x theta ) must be\zero if correct value of omega is substituted.If not could achieve this in one or two trials.The amplitudes theta of rotors could be plotted and joined by straight lines givind the elastic line of the shaft.

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What was on the previous slide depicted the Holtzer table where the frequency of a complex system could be found by avoiding tedious mathematical solutions.The first and the sixth columns of the table are filled in from the known dimensions of the system and the second column is filled in from the assumed value of omega.The amplitude of the left hand rotor is assumed to be one radian in column three ,and the first entries in columns four and five follows.The entry in column seven is obtained by dividing the first entry in column five by that in column six.This allows the twist of the length of the shaft between rotor A and B to be known so that the amplitude of the rotor B is found by subtracting this from 1. The difference is entered on the second line of column three.The entry in the second line of column 4 then follows and then is added to the first entry in order to give (Zigma ) for the rotors A and B The sum is entered in the second line of column five and is then divided by the second entry in column six to give the second entry in column seven. This process is repeated to complete the table .If the final figure in the in column five is not zero then the process has to be repeated. with a different 01/02/2014

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Torsional vibration includes the complete shaft system of the propulsion plant ,including the crankshaft intermediate shaft and the propeller shaft.Where appropriate also included engine running gear,flywheel flexible couplings clutches and power take off drives.The varying gas pressure creates a varying torque and these cause excitation of torsional vibration of the shaft system.The propeller working in a non uniform wake also causes torsional excitations.Since varying torque is cyclic it could be represented as the sum of torques acting at different frequencies which are multiples of engine s rotational frequency.The stresses caused by the torsional vibrations will attain peak values at resonances.that is where number of revolutions multiplied by the order of excitation corresponds to the natural frequency.To avoid damage to the propulsion system components the classification societies have laid down two limits .The lower limit could be exceeded for a short time only and this prohibits the engine operation at this range of revolutions for a continuous period.The upper limit is not exceeded.As has been explained by the equations earlier it is clearly seen that the alteration of natural frequency is possible by adjusting the diameter .A small diameter results low frequency. A larger will result high natural frequency.Torsional vibration dampers are fitted in some cases based on (1)for controllable pitch (2) Unusual shafting layout required by the owner (3) plants with eight,ten eleven or twelve cylinders. 4,5 & 6 cylinder engines it is usual to have the frequency of the system with one node vibration to be kept away from the normal speed range to avoid heavy excitations.Achieved by changing the masses and or the stiffness of the system to give higher or lower natural frequency termed respectively as under critical or overcritical.One node vibration frequency is so adjusted so that the resonance of main critical order occurs above 35-45% of the engine speed at mcr (maximum continuous rating) with some of the factors mentioned.
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Under critical running The natural frequency of the one-node vibration is so adjusted that resonance with the main critical order occurs about 35-45 per cent above engine speed at specified maximum continuous rating (mcr) . The characteristics of under critical system are normally Relatively short shafting system 1.Probably no tuning wheel 2. Turning wheel with relatively low inertia 3. Large dia shafting ,allowing material of moderate U.T.S, but require careful shaft alignment due to relatively high bending stiffness 4. Without barred speed range. All above are suited for under critical running. When running undercritical , significant varying torque at mcr conditions of about 100-150% of the mean torque is to be expected. This torque ( propeller torsional amplitude ) induces a significant varying propeller thrust which, under adverse conditions, might excite annoying longitudinal vibrations on engine/double bottom and/or deckhouse. Shipyards should be aware of this and ensure that the complete aft body structure of the ship n, including the double bottom in the engine room, is designed to cope with the described phenomena.

Overcritical running
Here the natural frequency of the one node vibration is so adjusted that resonance with main critical order occurs 30-70% below the engine speed at specified mcr . Such overcritical conditions can be realised by choosing an elastic shafting system, leading to relatively low natural frequency.. The characteristics of the over critical conditions are

Tuning wheel at the fore end of the shaft. Turning wheel with relatively high inertia Shafts with small diameters\with material of high UTS With a barred speed range of about + / - 10% with respect to critical speed range.

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Torsional vibrations in overcritical conditions may, in special cases, have to be eliminated by the use of torsional vibration damper which can be fitted when necessary at extra cost. For six cylinder engines the normal procedure is to adopt a shaft line with a diameter according to the class rules , and consequently, a barred speed range. Excitations associated with engines of seven or more cylinders are smaller, and barred speed range is not normally necessary. MAN B&W Diesel cites a series of tankers , each powered by a five cylinder L80MC engine and featuring a shaft system of a larger diameter than that required by the classification society, and with no turning wheel to avoid a barred speed range. The torsional vibration induced propeller thrust was about 30% of the mean thrust . During sea trials heavy longitudinal vibration of the engine frame as well as of the superstructure ( excited by the varying thrust) was experienced. A replacement of the entire shaft system was considered virtually impossible ( expensive and time consuming) so effects to restrict the heavy longitudinal vibration were concentrated on longitudinal top bracing. After a few attempts it became evident that the steel work of the deck in way of the fore end of the engine had to be strengthened to yield sufficient rigidity. Vibration levels became acceptable after this strengthening had been executed.

HULL VIBRATION The natural frequencies of ship hulls are relatively difficult to predict accurately and are also influenced by the loading condition. MAN B&W Diesel and New Sulzer Diesel two-stroke engines do not generate any free forces ; and free moments are generated for certain number of cylinders. Hull vibration can only be excited by a Sulzer RTA low speed engine if it is located on or near a node of critical hull vibration, and if the frequency of this vibration mode coincides with the first or second harmonic of the engine excitation. Furthermore, the magnitude of the troublesome free moment has to exceed the stabilizing influence of the natural damping in the hull structure. If resonance is foreseen, New Sulzer Diesel notes the following solutions. ( Figures 1.18 and 1.19) in the next slides)

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If resonance is foreseen i.e. ( the magnitude of the troublesome free moment exceeds the stabilising influence of the natural damping in the hull structure) New Sulzer Diesel notes the following solutions ( fig 1.18 and 1.19) Lanchester balancers, either on the engine or electrically driven units usually located on the steering gear flat, compensate for ship vibration caused by the second order vertical moment. Counterweights on the crankshaft often represent a simple and effective solution for primary unbalance, which is only relevant to four cylinder engines. Combined primary/secondary balancers are available for RTA engines to counteract entirely both primary and secondary unbalance. Side stays can be fitted between the engine top and hull structure to reduce vibration caused by lateral moments, a situation mainly arising for four, eight and twelve cylinder engines. Hydraulic type side stays are preferable.

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AXIAL DAMPER Axial or longitudinal vibrations as discussed earlier is exited by the radial forces due to cylinder operation and the axial forces from propeller rotation.(torsional vibration also cause axial deflection of the crankshaft.) In order to restrict the amplitude of axial vibrations an axial detuner or vibration damper is fitted when a possibility of existence of high vibration amplitudes.Located at the free end of the crankshaft and moves the natural frequency of axial vibration to a value above that obtained at the normal max operating speed.It consists of a piston or collar on the crankshaft which is located in a cylinder which is attached to the forward end of the foremost main bearing.Seals are provided between the cylinder and crankshaft and the cylinder and edge of the piston.The chambers on each side of the piston is equipped with a throttle valve which could limit the transfer of oil between the two chambers which produces the damping effect.

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CRITICAL SPEEDS The disturbances as we have been discussing which excite torsional vibrations come from the combination of gas load on pistons and inertia loads on running gear .This applies a turning moment at each crank throw.A four stroke single acting engine will exert a major peak torque with frequency equal to half the number of cylinders multiplied by revs/min.If the engine is operated at a speed where this frequency coincides with the natural frequency of the system a resonance will produce vibrations of excessive amplitude.This engine speed is recognized as the major critical speed.The turning moment for each cylinder is a complex curve repeated every two revs.It can be represented by sine waves of varying amplitude and phasing.Just described was the fundamental wave which corresponds to the disturbing torques occurring two,three four times per two revs.Each of the harmonics has the capability to excite free natural vibrations if the engine is run at different speeds.These are termed critical speeds and are distinguished from each other by number of vibrations that occur during each revolution.The number is termed the order of vibration, four vibration per revolution It could be stated as fourth order vibration and the engine speed which produces resonance of this vibration is termed the fourth order critical speed.This fourth order could be major or fundamental critical speed .With four stroke engines any order of vibration in steps of one half is possible.The magnitude of the exciting torque of each order of vibration depends on number of cylinders ,firing order and the shape of the elastic line.Major critical speeds are those where the energy input is high compared with damping and a satisfactory system will avoid running on major critical speeds altogether.It may however may not be possible to avoid minor critical speeds and the damping in the system is made high enough to ensure that this energy input does not cause amplitudes which would unduly stress the shafts or cause damage.
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Too high a torsional vibrations can cause failure of shaft these torsional fatigue failures are characterized by progression of cracks 45 degrees to the axis.If a node of one of the modes of vibration lies within the crankshaft lies near flywheel end the crankshaft is vulnerable to this kind of failure.The stresses arising from torsional vibrations will cause the crankshaft to bend.Positions of usual high stresses occur in the fillet radii of journals and pins joining webs at the inner positions in plane of the crank throw. If a system is equipped with gearing ,vibrations could cause problems at low loads.This could occur at low speeds when the propeller torque is not very high.If a critical speed occurs at such low speed the vibratory toque may overcome the transmitted torque even though neither is not very high.Backlash of the gear teeth may cause gear teeth to separate.and make contact with high impact .This is termed gear hammer.and must be avoided with the introduction of damping to reduce vibratory torques or adjusting the natural frequency of the system.to alter the critical speed. To avoid torsional vibrations in generating sets it is sufficient to adjust the natural frequency so that the critical speeds do not occur near running speed..To adjust the inertia of variable speed engines ,usually a mass is added in the shape of a flywheel at the forward end of the engine , in the increasing direction.Most systems include a flexible coupling between the engine and the gear box in order to avoid extreme fluctuations of load on the gear teeth.By choosing such couplings their stiffness can be arranged to overcome situations when the system give rise to critical speeds . Holset coupling is an example which could be viewed at the next slide.The buffers may be equipped with different values of stiff nesses .Alternatively springs can be used that are capable of being changed to give different rates.Some spring couplings have two sets of springs One for low torques , giving low stiffness when compressed and whilst a certain torque is exceeded the second set will come into play with added value for early stiffness.This has the effect of altering the system according to whether the torque is above or below the point at which the second set of springs come into operation and the system is armed with two frequencies.It is hence possible to dispose critical speeds so as to provide a wide range of operation free from vibration. 01/02/2014 84

SUB FRAME TYPE RESILIENT MOUNTING

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Some couplings are arranged so that they detune in the manner described.A mechanical coupling in which the driving and the driven halves are connected by leaf springs are provided with slots to receive them and so arranged that the effective length is changed as torque is increased.With this device the frequency is altered not only as the transmitted torque is increased but also while the vibratory torque is increased. These are termed detuning couplings.Some use oil in place of springs ,which is kept under pressure from the luboil system .The relative movement between the driver and driven cause the oil to be squeezed between fine clearances.from one side of the spring to the other.This introduces damping as well as detuning.However damping of this nature is not particularly effective at the coupling because the coupling is situated not very far from node where the amplitudes are low.Dampers of this kind be best placed at the end of the engine ,especially the free end of the engine where the amplitudes are great and damping is more effective.

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It operates as a damper by the fact that the driven half although not operating any machine can be made of sufficient mass to act as a flywheel.This will tend to turn with uniform motion rather than follow vibrations.Since it is rigidly connected to the shaft the driving portion will transfer the oil through the fine clearances between passages so absorbing the energy and damping it.Using oil as a medium for damping is sometimes disadvantageous as the oil lowers viscosity when heats up and makes it less effective as a damper.Dampers where the viscous fluid is sheared is the correct principle and Holset damper is a very good example. The Holset damper which was shown in the previous slide consists of a light outer casing rigidly connected to the end of vibrating shaft Carried freely inside is a very heavy mass where the only connection between them is the viscous oil in The fluid is a silicone rather than the lubricating oil in which the damper is filled. Silicone has a higher viscosity which alters less with increase in temperature. When shaft rotates the inner mass is carried round with the outer casing by the viscous shear of the fluid and will attain the speed of rotation of the shaft.The inertia of the inner mass does not allow to follow the vibrations but it continues to rotate with more or less uniform motion. The outer casing does follow the vibrations and in consequence a the absorbs the energy of vibration giving a large measure of damping. The energy though would heat up the fluid by shearing but heat dissipations to atmosphere to keep it in equilibrium. If the damper is inside the engine some form of cooling has to be provided. These dampers are sealed units and needs no maintenance. This provide a substitute for a detuner in a different way than just altering the stiffness of a coupling. When the inner mass and the outer casing rotate together, it will have a certain inertia. At the onset of vibrations the enhanced shear of the viscous fluid permits the case to move separately from the mass and the inertia of the casing alone will become the determining inertia in the natural frequency of the vibrating shaft. The vibrating system will have a different frequency than the frequency of the system when it is not vibrating. This detuning will restrict the amplitudes from which the vibration can build up. When the vibration tend to build up at a critical speed correspond to the system whole mass operates but as the amplitude rises the inertia will be changed to a lighter one and the critical speed will rise so that the system is no longer in resonance. As the engine speed is increased it will revert to original state and the critical speed will fall below that at which engine is operating.

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The damping energy may be absorbed by 1. The shearing of viscous liquid 2. Pumping oil through through fine passages 3. Friction surfaces to rub together 4. Operating a pendulum mechanism opposing the motion of vibration.Most dampers are situated outside the engine so as to be able to dissipate heat to the atmosphere. Torsiographs is an instrument employed to measure torsional vibrations.Consists of an outer casing of a drum which could rotate in a horizontal axis to follow the motion of a crankshaft either by rigidly connecting on or driven by a belt.inside the casing is a seismic mass free to rotate in the same axis as the casing and connected to it by a spring of very low stiffness.Motion of the seismic mass approximates the angular velocity whilst the casing follows the motion of the crankshaft.In the presence of torsional vibration there is a relative movement between the two parts.This relative movement is detected and amplified by a system of levers and cause a pencil strip to be made on a paper strip.This has become very obsolete in the presence of robust electronic instruments. They are categorized as 1. Once that detects the motion of shaft during vibration. 2. The other detecting the strain of the shaft. The alternative electrical method uses strain gauges to obtain direct measurement of stress in the shaft and requires it to be mounted at a place where the stress is high.The strain gauges are arranged to give rise to an electrical signal which is amplified and displayed. ----------------

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CRITICAL SPEED SIMPLIFIED As discussed the turning moment from a single cylinder engine is made up from a combination of forces acting on the pistons and the inertia forces from the running gear.The turning moment reaches a peak each 720 degree s of crank rotation in a four stroke engine and each 360 degrees for at t In a multi cylinder engine there will be a peak for each cylinder In a four stroke engine the number of peaks will therefore equal the number of cylinders firing in 720 degrees crank rotation,or half the number of cylinders for 360 degrees of rotation.In two stroke engines the number of peaks per revolution will be equal to the number of cylinders.If the peaks per 360 degrees of crank rotation are multiplied by the engine revolutions per minute we can get a frequency per minute.If this frequency is similar to any one of the natural frequencies of the engine shafting system we have a resonant condition. The speed of the engine in revs / min at which the resonant condition occurs is referred to as critical speed.The high stresses associated with resonant conditions will start to build up as the engine speed approaches the critical speed.,and do not come back to some safe value until until the engine speed is beyond the critical speed.The unsafe stresses either side of the critical speed are referred to as flank stresses.The barred speed range of an engine is the range of speed from the beginning of build up of unsafe flank stresses to the dying away of these stresses. If in preliminary design of a shafting system it is found that the torsional vibration characteristics are not satisfactory what can be done to improve the situation. If a system is run at constant speed (ie diesel generator) there is normally no great difficulty in bringing the critical speeds outside of the operating speed of the engine .Done by increasing torsional stiffness of the shafting system. In the shafting system associated with propulsion machinery it becomes more difficult to modify the natural frequency of the system., as usually more than one mode of vibration must be covered. If alterations to the torsional stiffness of shafting , or changing the values or location of masses does not give the desired result ,additional masses must be brought into the system. Sometimes the additional mass is in the form of a damper or detuner.In geared propulsion systems ,couplings giving some damping effect can be fitted between the engines and the gear box.

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The commonest detuning and damping devices in marine practice are viscous fluid dampers and spring loaded detuners. In each of these both detuning and damping occurs. The effectiveness of any mass on the natural frequency of a shafting system vibrating torsion ally is dependant on the mass moment of inertia of the mass. VISCOUS DAMPER A viscous damper is made up of two masses ; the comparatively light casing and the heavy inner ring which has a high moment of inertia. When the engine is started the inner ring lags behind the outer casing, which moves with the crankshaft. The viscous fluid drags the heavy ring round and it quickly comes up to the same speed as the casing. When the inner ring is moving with the speed of the casing the effective value of the mass moment of inertia of the damper is the summation of the value for the casing and the inner ring. As the speed of the engine is increased and the resonant condition is approached , the crankshaft and the outer casing commence to vibrate torsion ally. When this occurs the viscous fluid seperating the casing and the ring allows some slip to take place and the effective mass of the damper is reduced that of the casing only. The reduction in the mass alters the frequency of the system by increasing it.. When slip occurs the energy within the vibrating system is dissipated by the movement of shearing action within the viscous fluid, and the amplitude of the vibration is kept within safe bounds. As the amplitudes are kept low the stresses remain low. This will occur at any critical speed. SPRING-LOADED DETUNER The connection between the fixed and moving elements of a detuner commonly takes the form of flat strip springs., or laminated springs made up of series of flat springs. These springs fit into slots which have a curved profile. The curved profile is such when the detuner operates with very small vibration amplitudes the distance between the spring supports is nearly maximum. When the vibration amplitudes are large the distance between the spring supports is reduced. If we liken the flat spring to a beam we can see that the distance between the supports is reduced the stiffness of the beam or the spring increases. This change in stiffness of the spring in effect alters the mass moment of inertia of the moving part of the detuner and so varies the natural frequency of the shafting system. When the engine is in operation and speed is altered so that it coincides with or approaches the critical speed , vibration of the shafting system commences. The element of the detuner fixed to the crankshaft vibrates with the crankshaft. The moving part of the detuner then lags or leads the vibratory movement of the crankshaft and natural frequency of the shafting system changed or detuned and the resonant condition vanishes. While the moving part of the detuner is lagging or leading the part attached to the crankshaft, the energy used to reserve or change the loading of the flat springs dissipates a large amount of energy of the vibration, and damping occurs. The damping effect reduces the amplitude of vibration of the crankshaft and keep the stresses within the safe bounds. The heat generated from the damping action of the viscous fluid or the load reversals on the flat strip springs must be continuously removed so that no serious temperature rise takes place in the damper or detuner. Viscous fluid dampers are sometimes fitted external to the engine crankcase in such a manner that sufficient air circulates around them to remove the heat generated.

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As explained earlier the commoner forms of vibration ,detuning and damping devices used in conjunction with marine diesel engines are (a) Silicone filled and spring loaded detuner which has a small clearance space between the seismic mass and the casing is filled with silicone liquid (b) Spring loaded detuner which is shown on the right is with maximum damping.As increased damping becomes necessary when approaching a critical speed the deflection of the springs increases to give the required degree of damping. The viscous damper consists of a flanged circular casing which is rigidly fixed to the shafting at the forward end of the crankshaft.Within the circular casing is a ring which has a large mass and completely fills the casing except for small clearances around it.The ring is not fastened to the casing in any way and is completely free to move angularly within it.The clearance space is filled with a fluid which has the property of retaining its viscosity over a wide temperature range.The ring fitted to casing is sometimes called a seismic mass.

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Spring loaded detuner made in two parts One part is rigidly fixed to the crankshaft and has a centrally loaded part shaft projecting from it.The other part consists of large mass (sometimes called a seismic mass)is fitted on the first part in such a manner that it can move angularly.The center part of this is bored out to fit on the projecting shaft.The two parts have a series of slots cut around their circumferences in an axial direction.The two parts are connected by a series of flat springs,the inside end of the slots being cut with a curve which accommodates the curvature of the springs when they are deflected under load.The curved profile is such that when the detuner operates with very small vibration amplitudes the distance between the spring supports in the slots is nearly maximum.When the vibration amplitudes are large the distance between the spring supports are reduced .If we liken the flat stiff spring to a beam we can see that the distance between the supports is reduced the stiffness of the beam or the spring increases.This change in the stiffness of the spring in effect alters the mass movement of inertia of the moving part of the detuner and so varies the natural frequency of the shafting system. The moving part of the detuner is is enclosed within a casing which is attached to the part rigidly fixed on the crankshaft.The inside of the casing is connected with the bearing lubricating oil supply and drain holes allow a small circulation of lubricating oil through the casing. When the engine is in operation and the speed is altered so that it coincides with or approaches a critical speed ,vibration of the shafting system commences.The element of the detuner fixed to the crankshaft vibrates with the crankshaft .The moving part of the detuner then lags or leads the vibratory movement of the crankshaft and the natural frequency of the shafting system is changed or detuned and the resonant condition vanishes.While the moving part of the detuner is lagging or leading the part attached to the crankshaft ,the energy used to reverse or change the loading of the flat springs dissipates a large amount of energy of the vibration,and damping occurs,The damping effect reduces the amplitude of vibration of the crankshaft and keep the stress within safe bounds At the nodal points there is no torque variation or amplitude arising out of vibration.No detuning or damping can then take place.Detuners and dampers are most effective if they are fitted at the antinodes.In practice this may not be possible,so that they are often fitted at the forward end of the engine.In some special cases they have been fitted at the aft end.There is nearly enough vibratory movement at the forward end to activate fully detuning and damping devices.

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If in the instruction book for the main engine indicated a third order ,second degree vibration at some engine speed occurs what is understood by this .. A vibration of the second degree is the same as the second mode of vibration .It indicates that the when the system is vibrating two nodes are present.The third order indicates that the engine speed is such that the number of impulses per revolution coincides with the third harmonic of the natural frequency of the system If we have a vibration with a fundamental frequency ,the harmonics would be the vibrations having frequencies which are whole number number multiples of the fundamental frequency.For example, if the fundamental frequency were 4 cycles per second ,the second harmonic would have a frequency 2 x 4 cycles per second (8 c/s ),similarly the fourth harmonic would have a frequency 4x4 cycles per second. If the natural frequency of a shafting system is N and the speed of the engine is such that the second order critical speed exists the speed of the crankshaft is ascertained thus Natural frequency / critical speed = order number, In this case critical speed = N / 2 = 1/ 2 the natural frequency. When talking of the node as explained earlier it is at a fixed point .In the main engine (direct drive) the propeller when running ahead ,forces the shafting system to take up a position where the ahead face of the thrust meets the thrust pads.This becomes the fixed point or the node in the system.Similarly the node would be coincident with the crankshaft location bearing in diesel generating sets.Any vibratory movement in the axial direction will therefore takes place away from the thrust bearing or location bearing.

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When a shaft is vibrating torsionally the stresses caused by the vibration could be ascertained by the elastic line as was explained earlier The elastic line gives the position of extreme displacement. Referring to two mass system If a line is scribed on the shaft in the unstressed condition it would swing radially with the nodal point as the center.The angle subtended between the elastic line and the scribed line in the zero stress position at the nodal point gives the angular strain along the surface of the shaft. Let this angle be denoted by alpha radian Distance from the node to one of the masses l(el) The angular displacement theta and the diameter of the shaft D (contd from next side) The stress caused by the torsional vibrations is equal to the product of the modulus of rigidity of the shaft material and the angular strain on the surface of the shaft.

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VIBRATION MONITORING
If machines are properly balanced aligned and fastened down and the bearings ,gears and drive belts are in good condition vibrations could be maintained at a low level.Deterioration of any of these will increase the level of vibration.Defects have the characteristics of the change in pattern and this could be used identify the cause . Vibration monitoring is therefore can be used to to determine the condition of a machine.Overhaul should be carried out when when the vibration reaches a predetermined level.When surveying rotating machinery some classification societies accept vibration monitoring readings.Provided that the readings show a satisfactory trend ,the machine can be surveyed without being opened up. Vibration is usually measured in velocity (mm/s) and acceleration (meters / sq.sec) Readings are taken on the machine ,usually closest to the bearings,in the vertical,transverse and axial directions.Measurements taken monthly and the trend monitored.If the level at one point tend to increase ,measurements are taken more frequently and a harmonic analysis carried out. Overhaul vibration level of a machine is made up of vibration at different frequencies and amplitudes.For instance gears will produce high frequency ,low amplitude vibrations, whereas unbalance is a lower frequency (machine RPM) and of high amplitude.There may also be vibration from misalignment,loose holding down bolts and others such as main engine. The vibration monitor sees all this and combines them into an overall value.Most equipment now have the ability to analyze the different frequencies.The vibration signature or spectrum can be used to help determine where the cause of the problem may be.The highest peak is usually at machine RPM or 1 st order.usually due to unbalance which is the common cause of machinery vibration.The frequency in Hz is equal to machine RPM /60 So first order for a machine running at 1800RPM is 30Hz From the table on the next slide some causes and characteristics are shown

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TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS IN PROPULSION SHAFT OPERATION Early marine diesel engines experienced failures of crankshafts due to torsional vibration.While we are well aware of how to take them into account in design,torsional vibrations are always present and can still cause component failures .A problem involving torsional vibrations occurs in certain medium speed geared installations . The problem occurred when an engine is operated with thermal unbalance between the cylinders ;in this condition the gas forces acting in the cylinders are unequal.Thermal unbalance can ,in extreme cases ,be due to one or more cylinders not firing.Further if the running gear of a cylinder is hung up,the excitation of vibrations will be something like 40% greater than with operating with compression only. Many geared diesel installations require either the speed or power reduction when operating for prolonged periods with one cylinder not firing, to avoid damage to couplings or gearing.With two adjacent cylinders not firing ,a vast majority of systems will experience damage of this nature. The majority of well designed direct drive systems are arranged so that the major critical of the first mode of vibration is resonant with the speeds as low as possible in the operating range ; which can result in a range in each side of critical speed being barred for continuous operation.In geared systems,the major critical is placed below the minimum operating speed by fitting a torsionally flexible coupling incorporating steel or rubber spring elements.With the major critical placed low ,the low order minor criticals resonate in the speed range.Under normal firing conditions ,those produce low torsional vibrations stresses and are,therefore,of little concern.However ,with an engine out of thermal balance ,the excitation forces greatly increase.In effect ,the minor criticals are no longer minor.An example of this for a twin engine ,single screw system is given in Fig 1. Flexible couplings are designed to accept quite high shock loads,say up to 6 times the rated torque.Gears are also susceptible to damage through torsional vibration.
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PROPULSION SHAFT OPERATION

Obviously ,the optimum design of a system is one where the vibrating characteristics are satisfactory for both normal and misfiring conditions but in practice this is not always attainable. While thermal unbalance can be monitored to some extent by means of exhaust gas temperatures ,there is a strong case for fitting instrumentation that continuously monitors torsional vibration by direct measurement on the components at risk.This could include temperature measurement on the coupling or strain measurement on the shaft at the coupling. The effect of hull distortion Marine engineers have always had the problem of operating machinery on a support system (the hull) subject to elastic and permanent deformation. This problem was high lighted some 30 years ago by a number of cases of gearing failure when pitted and broken teeth in secondary reduction gears were attributed to the effect of misalignment introduced into the boxes by the output shafting. In the case of the direct coupled engine it is common practice to ensure the safe operation of the crankshaft by means of crankshaft deflection readings.Laser measurements along the bottom of a vessel which experienced a crankshaft failure was paralleled by measuring the alignment of the bedplate.When the holding down bolts were slackened bedplate hogging was reduced by 0.6 mm.It is essential to be able to predict such hull movements on the shafting system The method developed was to model the shaft by a series of beam elements together with experimentally derived stiffness correction factors ,and incorporating stress correction factors.The mathematical model of the shaft is rotated by the computer and calculations are run at any selected increment of crank angle. Within the engine account can be taken of cylinder gas pressure loading ,changes in counterweights ,hollow crankpins and the inclusion of external constraints other than bearings,e.g.flywheels and chain drives.

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Outside the engine ,consideration could be given to other shafting,buoyancy in the stern tube etc. Fig 2 indicates the change in fillet stress in the crankshaft of a medium speed engine when a main bearing fails.it is quite clear from this that the high stress must result in fatigue damage. Thus it is now possible to predict suitable alignments for the directly coupled system in a rational manner .Trouble shooting also can be done accurately and quickly.Nor is the technique limited to directly coupled engines. LOAD DISTRIBUTION Since pitting and fractures of gearing resulted in the introduction of rational alignment,methods have been developed for measuring load distribution in gear teeth by means of strain gauges fitted to the roots along the length of teeth.Signals from the moving gears are transmitted by telemetry and many cycles of operation recorded. Thus , as a tooth passes through mesh and transmits load ,the signal pulse height is related to the load carried in the area of the strain gauge.Analysis of these pulses over many cycles can trace the effect of factors such as alignment,machining errors,torsional vibration ,etc.Computer programs enable the analysis to be carried out with minimum of human involvement. This is the most advanced available method to enable engineering judgments to be made on marine gears in service.It is therefore an ideal tool to assess the effects on hull movement on gearing. An example illustrates now,in a well designed system ,hull movements have little effect on gear.A vessel is a V.L.C.C of single screw design and therefore hull movements in the vertical plane were recorded by using electronic displacement transducers ,measuring between a datum, formed by series of tubes ,and the hull. Measurement of hull movements were taken while ,at the same time, measurements were made of gear tooth root strain. It was found that effect of helix mismatch was about 30% of mean torque and was not effected by external influences.

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The misalignment component of gear tooth bending stress was about 5% at full power.On this vessel,an excellent dynamic alignment was achieved. One interesting result was the effect of filling the the large after peak tank to its full capacity of 1600t.This modification to hull loading changed the root strain distribution on the gear teeth by 6% of mean strain.To put this in perspective ,an adjustment of 0.25mm to the plummer block aft of the gear box ,was required to produce the same change.An internal pinion to gear teeth adjustment ,of only 0.01 mm across one helix in the plane of action ,had the same effect.

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NOISE Noise pervades nuisance and a hazard to hearing.Noise is basically a form of vibration.Noise is reckoned according to it sound pressure level.It is subjective as it involves its effect on people and a a mere measurement its level is of limited use.Noises are calibrated with reference to to a sound pressure level of 0.0002 dyne per sq.cm.for a pure 1000Hz\sine wave.A dyne is a force that gives 1 gm an acceleration of 1 cm/sq.second.It is 10 5 Newton. To avoid misleading comparison in the scale which is linear noise levels are measured on a logarithmic scale of bels. ( 1 bel means 10 times the reference level. 3 bels means 1000 times the reference level ie 10 3 . For convenience bel is divided into 10 parts .Hence decibel or dB. This means 80 decibel (80dB) (8 bel ) is 10 8 times the pressure level.. The human ear hears high and lower frequencies ( over say 1 kHz or below 50 kHz )as louder than the middle frequencies. even when the sound pressure levels are the same. For practical purposes they are measured according to a frequency scale weighted to correspond to the human ear. This is A scale. and the readings are quoted in dBA The logarithmic based scale is sometimes perplexed. So it is worth remembering that 30 db corresponds to a gentle breeze 70db to an open office ; 100 db corresponds to a generator room. Any prolonged exposure to levels of 85 db or above lead to hearing loss in the absence of ear protection.140db or above is likely to be physically painful. usually measured at a reference level distance of 0.7 meters in the case of diesel engines. So moving 10 times further away reduces the noise to 1/100th,or by 20 db. Unfortunately a ships engine room has plenty of reflecting surfaces so that there is only a little benefit to be had from moving away. Lining as much as possible with sound absorbing material does two things 1. It reduces the echo and moving away gives a greater reduction in perceived noise. 2 It tends to reduce sympathetic (resonant) vibration of parts of the ships structure . 01/02/2014 103

Anti vibration mounts help in the latter case but not always practical.Only other measure to which can successfully reduce noise is to have a suitable cavity or a vacuum between the source and the observer. Also by introducing a weight. A screen of almost any material ,weighing 5 kg/sq.cm will make a reduction of 10dbin perceived noise Where weight is increased by increasing thickness it is more effective to do so in porous flexible material than a rigid material. For the latter the db reduction in transmitted noise is proportional to the log 10 of the weight but for the former it is proportional to the thickness.A tenfold increase in the thickness of the rigid material of 5 kg/sq.cm would double the attenuation.In porous material it would be tenfold.For the screen to be totally effective there should be no apertures, A relatively small aperture will destroy much of the benefit. A vibration characteristic of low speed two stroke engine ,for practical purposes ,can be split into four categories.that may influence the hull.External unbalanced moments could be classified as an balanced 1st and 2nd order external moments which need to be considered only for engines with certain cylinder numbers. 1 Guide force moments 2 Axial vibration of the shafting system 3 Torsional vibration of the shafting system.

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When the ships propeller is driven by some power source a torque resisting rotation is created. Due to the pattern of the wake at the stern of the ship some variation of torque will exist; The resisting torque created by the propeller when it is driven by the engine varies when the vessel is pitching , the propeller immersion changes as the stern rises and falls. As the immersion increases the torque increases and the engine driving the propeller slows down. Even in calm weather a propeller working behind a ships hull will meet varying inflow water velocity and this variation can be very large , especially on single screw ships. A typical picture of an axils velocity field ( wake field) , measured in the propeller plane , is shown in the figure. A wake factor (Wt of 0 means that the propeller blade will meet axial inflow water velocity identical to ships speed. In addition to its own rotational speed. In an area (Wt = 0.90 the axial inflow of water velocity will be 10 percent of the ships speed. Inflow velocity variations can be as much as 70 to 80 percent of the mean velocity. Furthermore each of the blades will be lightly loaded in position 90 to 135 degrees (high axial velocity ) while in position 0 degrees it will be heavily loaded. The area around 0 degrees is called the wake peak. In such a wake peak , the blade loading will increase as the blade continues through it, and cavitations will occur at the back of the blade ( suction side cavitation ) . The propeller is behind a wake formed by the hull which will enhance the variation.

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Gas pressure on the piston is discussed again to reiterate the vibrations caused by variation
When an electrical generator is being driven a torque resisting rotation is also set up . As long as the load remains constant the torque resisting rotation remains constant. When the electrical load is increased on the generator the resisting torque increases, and when it is reduced the resisting torque is reduced. In order to suit the voltage and frequency requirements of the various types of electrical machine the rotational speed of a generator or alternator should remain constant . Gas pressure on the piston of a diesel engine changes as the piston reciprocates within the cylinder. Starting with the piston on top centre at the beginning of the firing stroke the torque created by the gas pressure is zero ( piston, connecting rod and crank form a straight line). As the crank moves over the top center position the gas pressure forces the piston downwards. Some of the pressure is used to accelerate the piston, and the remainder creates a turning moment or torque which overcomes the resisting torque from the propeller, generator or machine being driven by the engine. When the crank is approximately 90 from the top centre position the piston speed is at the maximum. From this position the piston speed begins s to fall until the piston reaches the bottom centre where its speed is zero. While the piston is being retarded the retardation force is added to the gas pressure on the piston, thus increasing the torque. While the expansion stroke is taking place the forces acting on the piston create a torque which is considerably in excess of that required by the machine being driven. During the other strokes required to complete the working cycle on the engine ( induction, compression, exhaust) energy must be obtained from some source other than the fuel, and the engine torque is therefore negative. In particular, during compression a considerable amount of energy is required to compress the air. It can be seen that there are considerable fluctuations in the torque output from a single cylinder at the crankshaft coupling and that there will be large fluctuations from four-stroke cycle engine than from two stroke cycle engines. As the number of cylinders on an engine are increased the torque fluctuation is reduced. The gas pressure within the cylinder creates a downward acting force on the piston. Initially the primary inertia force acts in opposition to the gas pressure. Soon after passing the mid position of its stroke the primary inertia forces aid the movement of the piston. During the upward stroke of the piston the inertia forces act on the piston in the opposite manner. The gas pressure under the piston (the charge air pressure in crosshead engines and the crankcase pressure in trunk piston engines) continually act upward in opposition to the gas pressure above the piston. Piston and piston ring friction also act continuously in a direction contrary to the piston movement) Let us see what role a flywheel plays in diesel engine. As stated earlier the turning moment from an engine crankshaft is subject to considerable variation during its rotation, and the variation can be shown on a torque diagram for the engine. If the average torque required to drive the load is plotted on a graph as a straight line with a constant value it will be seen that the actual torque at any instant will be greater or less than the mean torque.

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When the torque from the engine is greater than the mean torque requirement the excess torque causes some increase in the rotational speed of the crankshaft. The excess energy is thus stored in the flywheel by virtue of its increased speed. During the periods of the cycle when the torque from the engine crankshaft is less than the mean torque requirement of the load , the extra energy stored in the flywheel is returned to the shafting system, and helps to maintain the rotational speed of the crankshaft. The flywheel is designed to hold the fluctuation in the rotational speed of the engine within the limits required by the load. The flywheel also assists in holding the speed of an engine nearer to the desired value while the engine governor is altering the fuel pump setting to suit some changed condition in the load on the engine. It also stores energy from the starting system during the starting operation and keeps the engine turning at sufficient speed to initiate combustion. The speed fluctuations discussed do not alter the speed of engine when measured as revs per minute , but cause small changes in angular velocity within a period of one or two revolutions depending on whether the engine is of the two or four stroke cycle. Let us know the difference between fluctuation of energy and the fluctuation of speed. Fluctuation of energy refers to the changes in the energy output that occurs during a complete cycle. It is calculated from the twisting moment or torque diagram and the positions at which the angular velocities of the crankshaft are at maximum and minimum value. The term fluctuation of speed refers to changes that occur in angular velocity of the crankshaft during a complete cycle. After the fluctuation in energy and speed have been obtained , coefficients of these values are calculated and used for establishing the required mass moment of inertia of the flywheel. The allowable speed fluctuation for a propeller are generally higher than for an alternator. The flywheel for an alternator must therefore control the speed fluctuation to much narrower limits. The necessity for controlling the speed fluctuation to narrow limits become particularly important for engine driving alternators which have to be run in parallel, further, the allowable tolerances in electrical frequency are very small for much of the electrical equipment. As stated the speed of the piston changes and when we speak of piston speed we usually refer to the mean piston speed which is in meters per second. Stroke (mm) x 2 x revs/min = stroke (mm) x revs/min 1000 x 60 30,000 Example ; What is the piston speed of an engine of 1600 mm stroke running at 115 revs/min.? The mean piston speed in m / s is 1600 x 115 = 6.13 m/s Actually , during the stroke of the piston , the piston velocity changes from zero at the 30 000
beginning of the stroke to some maximum value at approximately mid stroke. The velocity then decreases to zero again at the end of the stroke. Any change in velocity is associated with acceleration, therefore as the velocity of the piston varies it results in acceleration. When velocity is zero piston acceleration is at maximum dv/dt is maximum when v is zero.

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If the connecting rod were of infinite length , the piston velocity and acceleration would be such that it would move with simple harmonic motion. If a body or point moves with s.h.m. it has an acceleration which varies as its distance from the central point of the movement. The distance that the point moves from the central point is termed the displacement. Mathematically , if the velocity of a point moving with s.h.m. is plotted on a time or angular displacement base, a sine curve is formed. The acceleration is given by the cosine curve. Zero point commences with movement from the centre point of the travel when the displacement is zero. An oscillation is the movement of a point or body from the centre to one extreme point , over to the opposite extreme point and back to the centre point again. An oscillation is sometimes referred to as the cycle. The periodic time is the time taken to make one oscillation or cycle. The frequency is the number of cycles or oscillations made in unit time .It is the reciprocal of periodic time. When a piston is moving through its stroke it experiences acceleration and retardation where do the forces for this originate. When we consider the balance of moving parts of an engine the gas pressures are not taken into account. The piston is connected with other moving parts of the engine through the connecting rod. The force causing the acceleration of the piston from the top centre position can be considered as coming from a pull exerted by the connecting rod. The push from the connecting rod continues while the piston goes through the bottom centre position and continues so that the piston is accelerated in the vertical direction upwards. After the piston reaches its maximum velocity it is again retarded as it continues towards the top center. The retardation is caused by the pull exerted by the connecting rod. The reactions to the forces in the connecting rod can be traced back to the main bearings and the engine bedplate. When the balance of the engine is considered we refer to the balancing of forces associated with the acceleration of moving parts, and the balancing of centrifugal forces arising out of revolving parts. The forces arising out of piston acceleration do have an effect on balance. The forces associated with each piston do not act in the same plane so couples are created which must also be taken into consideration when the complete balance of the engine is being studied. This form of balancing is associated with the dynamics of the various moving parts; in consequence the gas load on the piston is not considered in the calculation covering the balance of these forces and couples. However the effects of the gas load on the piston must obviously be considered when stresses are being calculated. When calculations are made to find the actual loads on cross-head bearings, cross-head slippers, piston pins and on the sides of piston skirts, a correction must be applied to the gas load on the piston for the inertia loads arising out of the reciprocating parts.

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When a piston is on top centre the piston is in effect pulled down by the connecting rod to give the acceleration, and the reaction to this pull tends to lift the bedplate. When the piston approaches bottom center it is retarded, and the reaction from the retarding force tends to push the bedplate down.. When the piston moves upwards from the bottom centre position the reaction to the accelerating force continues to push the bedplate down until maximum piston velocity is reached. Beyond this point, and as the piston approaches top centre moving upwards , the retarding force reaction tends to lift the bedplate up. This can be summarized by saying that the primary inertia forces from the piston and the reciprocating masses cause the bedplate to press hard down on the chocks when the piston approaches , goes through and leaves the bottom centre position. Similarly the bedplate tends to lift when the piston approaches goes through and leaves the top centre position. In vertical opposed piston engines the pistons always move in opposite directions so it is possible to balance the primary disturbing forces from the upper and lower pistons and their attendant reciprocating parts . Taking the formula for the primary disturbing force we have F = M2r cos and in order to balance the disturbing forces from the upper piston they must be equal and opposite to the disturbing force from the lower piston. As and cos are identical for both upper and lower pistons they cancel out and we can say

Top piston mass x r upper piston = bottom piston mass x r bottom piston
It follows that the weight of the upper piston reciprocating parts consisting of piston , transverse beam, side rods, etc is naturally greater than the reciprocating parts of the lower piston. As the mass of the upper piston reciprocating parts is greater , the value of r, the length of the crank , the length of the crank , must be made smaller to make the primary disturbing force equal and opposite. It should be noted that as the primary forces are equal and opposite for the upper and lower pistons they equate to zero in any one cylinder unit. As they equate to zero no couples are set up. This applies only to engines where the lower piston is connected to a centre crank and the upper piston is connected through two side rods and two connecting rods to crank on either side of the centre crank. As opposed piston engines of the type discussed have no external primary forces or couples and the firing loads are contained between the upper and lower pistons and not transmitted down to the bedplate and main bearings , it follows that loads coming on to the bedplate are much less than in ordinary engines. In consequence they are often made lighter than the bedplates of other types of engine. It should be noted that the gas loads and inertia forces from the individual upper and lower pistons and running gear are transmitted through to the crankshaft from the centre and side rod bottom end bearings.

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The first and second vertical order moments may cause a forced vibration in the hull.. If the engine speed is such that the forced vibration frequency is near to the natural frequency in the hull , resonant condition may occur and lead to very high hull stresses and extreme discomfort to those on board. Although electronic navigation equipment is tested on vibrating stands to ascertain the life of components, experience has shown that breakdown of electronic navigation equipment occurs early in life when any hull vibration that may appear acceptable is present. Some failure of electronic equipment is also associated with local vibration caused by propeller excitation. Seen on the right are primary and secondary moment balance weights fitted at one end of an engine. These balance weights can be fitted after the shop trials if a serious hull vibration is not found in the hull design stage is experienced This is a type of balancer gear capable of balancing moments that lead to hull vibration. The engine designer aims to eliminate or reduce to acceptable levels of the various forces and moments which come from an engine when it is in operation. The reaction to these forces and moments come down to the engine foundation which forms part of the hull structure and in consequence may cause vibration of the hull or parts of the hull.

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Listed below are the forces and moments which may occur in vertical multicylinder engine. 1. Primary and secondary disturbing forces arising out of reciprocating parts, together with their associated moments. 2. Horizontal and vertical forces and moments arising out of centrifugal forces from revolving parts. 3. Forces and moments arising out of guide forces. 4. Reaction of the engine structure due to torque from the crankshaft The forces and moments are dependant on the number of cylinders , crank angles, masses and speed of moving parts.. In some cases the forces and moments are balanced internally and have no external effect, in other cases the unbalance may manifest itself in vibration of the hull structure. Where there is no external effect arising out of the balanced moments there may be an increase in the loads on main bearings around the mid length of the crankshaft. Figure on the right shows the out of balance forces associated with a two stroke cycle crosshead type diesel engine . The effects of gas pressure are also shown. 01/02/2014 111

Two or three node hull vibration. Engines with large out of balance vertical moments may cause hull vibration when fitted at points marked A When hull vibration occurs while operating under light ship conditions the vibration may be reduced by increasing the amount or changing the location of ballast

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Referring to the previous slide the figure shows how an engine having out of balance forces and moments can cause hull vibration. An engine having out of balance force forces could cause a two node, three node or multi node form of vibration if it is located between nodes. This is shown when an engine is located at points marked A . The upward and downward acting forces coming out of the engine create a push and pull action on the hull structure and lead to vibration. Engines having out of balance moments may cause vibration if located at points marked B . The out of balance moments create a couple; when this couple acts in way of any node point the rocking action coming out of the engine acts on the hull and could lead to vibration. If the hull structure is not strong enough to resist or dampen these actions vibration will be experienced. If th engine is operating at a speed which coincides with the natural hull frequency a resonant condition will arise and the vibration amplitudes may become excessive or even dangerous. A change of engine speed, up or down, usually gives the desired effect. If service demands make it impracticable to change engine speed, changing fuel location or moving ballast may give the required degree of damping. If the vibration remains excessive then the speed change become necessary to prevent the start of hull structures.---------------------------------------------------------------------Apart from the ease of manufacture it is sometimes popular in slow in slow speed direct couple engines. Semi built crankshafts may be cast or forged in steel , and the two webs and crankpin form one piece. By enlarging the size of the crankpin and boring it out, a very stiff section can be formed. This, together with the fact that the web does not encircle the crankpin as in fully built shafts , reduces the out of balance rotation weight at the crankpin and makes it less difficult to achieve the balance required. Some crankshafts are balanced by varying the size of the holes in the crankpins and casting a balance weight section within the engine flywheel. 01/02/2014 113

The mass of material which forms the crank webs, crankpin, bottom end bearing assembly , and the lower part of connecting rod , constitutes a large mass which rotates in a circular path having its axis on the polar axis of the journals. When the engine is running at operational speed these parts set up centrifugal forces. The summation of these forces is such that they add up to a large force which acts radially outwards from a point midway between the crankwebs passing outwards through the centre of the crankpin. The value of this force is naturally dependant on the weight of the parts and their angular velocity. The effect of this force on the operation of the engine is to induce loads on the main bearing which in turn tend to move the bedplate in the direction in which the force is acting. For example, when the crankpin is passing over the top centre the force is acting upwards and is tending to lift the bedplate. When the crank webs are at 90 to the line of piston stroke the force tend to slide the bedplate to one side in the direction of the crankweb. When the crank is on bottom centre the force acting downwards and tends to push the bedplate hard down on the chocks and engine foundation. If an engine is in good balance it is understood that the forces and couples coming onto the bedplate are within acceptable limits and are not likely to cause trouble with the foundation chocks and holding down bolts, or set up unacceptable vibration in the engine foundation and hull structure. For an engine to be in good balance all forces caused by reciprocating and revolving parts must be preferably fully balanced out, or at least partially balanced out. In many cases it is not possible to completely eradicate all forces and moments but they must be balanced to satisfactory and acceptable values. Generally it can be said that six cylinder and twelve cylinder engines are the easiest to balance completely, followed by eight cylinder engines- in which out of balance couples may remain.

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Description of the action of vibration. If a constrained piece of elastic material is loaded in some manner , deformation occurs. When the load is removed the deformed material returns to its original condition In returning to its original condition the elastic strain energy stored in the deformed material is converted to kinetic energy which causes material to continue to moving beyond the point of the zero strain. The movement continues until all energy is again converted to elastic strain energy and the material is in a deformed condition The action is again repeated as the deformed materials revert to the position of zero strain. The action continues and the material is said to be vibrating. A piece of rubber could be stretched by moving the hands apart thereby increasing the its length, axially. If vibrations occurred so that axial stresses are set up it would be described as axial vibration. If the wrists are turned in opposite directions the square section would be twisted and the edges of the square corners would change from straight to helices. The rubber would then be subjected to torsional or shear stress; when vibration occurs associated with torsional stress it is described as torsional vibration. In the unstressed condition the corners of the square section rubber the corners of the square-section rubber line along straight lines; When torsional vibration occurs the straight line formed by the square corners move to form right handed and left handed helices. When the shaft is twisted in this manner it is slightly shortened in axial direction. When under the action of varying torque changing in direction as in a crankshaft, the periodic decrease and increase in length will bring about axial movement at the end of the shaft and may lead to unwanted axial vibration. By moving the hands, one clockwise and the other anticlockwise , the length of rubber can be bent to form the arc of a circle. The stresses will be similar to those in a loaded beam and if a vibration occurs from this form of loading it is referred to as transverse vibration. The three forms of vibrations are ; axial vibration in which the particles move backwards and forwards in lines parallel to the axis of the bar or shaft; torsional vibration in which the particles move in small circular arcs around the centre of the axis of the shaft; transverse vibration in which the particle move in lines perpendicular to the axis of the bar. Axial and transverse vibrations can occur in revolving shafts. In making studies of vibration characteristics of shafting , engine components and the like, the part being studied is considered as static except for the motion of the vibration which is occurring. All elastic material when vibrating experience some resistance which dissipates the energy causing vibration, so the vibration may die away and the vibration parts become static. This resistance and its action is referred to as damping. It is made up of internal and external resistance . The internal resistance caused by the resistance of particles to motion or by internal friction. The external resistance is due to the resistance set up by the medium in which the part is vibrating. It should be pointed out that as the amplitude increases the damping action also increases. If free vibration is damped by some means the energy changes at each oscillation are gradually reduced. The amplitude also gradually reduced until it becomes zero. During the period of decay the periodic time is slightly increased and the frequency is slightly reduced.

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Forced Vibrations are of fairly common occurrence, and therefore of considerable importance. For forced vibration to occur the vibrating body must be subjected to a rhythmically applied force or load. The initial motion of vibration is complicated in nature and consists of both free or natural vibrations and forced vibration. The natural vibration rapidly dies away and the forced vibration continues under the action of rhythmically applied force. The frequency of the of a forced vibration is the same as the frequency of the rhythmically applied force.. The rapid decay of the natural vibration is sometimes referred to as the transient vibration or transient condition. Any elastic system has a natural vibration which will have some frequency. If the system is subjected to forced vibration and the frequency of the rhythmically applied forces is very near to or the same as the natural frequency of the elastic system , resonance occurs. When the frequency of the applied force approaches the natural frequency of the elastic system the amplitude of vibration increases at an alarming rate . The amplitude of vibration is equivalent to strain. As stress is proportional to to strain, stress also increases at an alarming rate . Operation of machinery where a resonant condition occurs is extremely dangerous sand early failure must be expected of the part operating under resonant conditions. It is for this reason that resonant conditions are of great importance. If we have a vibration with fundamental frequency, the harmonics would be vibrations having frequencies which are whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency. For example, if the fundamental frequency were 4 cycles per second, the second harmonic would have a frequency of 2 x 4 cycles per second. 8 c/s, similarly the fourth harmonic would have a frequency of 4 x 4 cycles per second ( 16 c/s) and so on. The crankshaft and shafting system of a slow speed engine direct-coupled diesel engine is made up of a series of large masses connected by relatively slender and flexible shafts. If we start at the aft end of the system the first large mass is the propeller. This is connected to the engine flywheel by a long shaft; ;being long , relative to its diameter, it is naturally flexible. The two constraints are the masses of the propeller and the flywheel. Between the flywheel and the engine is the thrust shaft and the aftermost crankwebs. The thrust shaft , while relatively slender, is much shorter and therefore its elasticity is less. Each crank can also be considered as a constraint connected by relatively flexible journal. The large masses are therefore constraints and the elastic parts of the system are the connecting sections of the shafting.

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Let us consider two masses of different values fastened at each end of a flexible shaft supported on frictionless bearings. If a shaft is vibrating torsion ally and in natural manner how would the system behave. Hence we would imagine that a straight line scribed along the shaft longitudinally between the two masses. Vibration would be started by giving the masses some angular displacement in opposite directions. If the masses and shaft dimensions were chosen so that the vibratory movement were slow enough to be easily visible, the scribed line would be seen to go through a swinging so that right-handed and left-handed helices were formed. It would also be noticed the movement of the scribed line was a radial or angular movement which took place about some point which remained fixed while the rest of the shaft was torsionally vibrating. On one side of the fixed point the shaft would swing in one direction while on the other side it would be swinging in the opposite direction. The fixed point is referred to as the Node or nodal point. The periodic time would be the same for the sections of the shaft on each side of the node, and the node would be nearer to the larger mass.; the amplitude of the larger mass would be less than amplitude of the smaller mass. The amplitudes would be angular and would normally measured in radians. The line scribed on the shaft in a position of extreme displacement is referred to as the elastic line. Pressure ordinates on an indicator diagram can be redrawn on a uniform time base in the form of a periodic pressure or force acting on the piston. As indicator diagram taken from an engine where the indicator drive is taken from the crosshead or from a lever and eccentric off the camshaft, will incorporate the effect of connecting rod angularity. The connecting rod angularity and its effect on piston position must be taken into account when re-drawing the diagram on time base or as a polar diagram. The method of correction will follow later. The gas pressure on the top of the piston causes motion downwards. The forces resisting piston motion are the gas pressure under the piston , piston ring and piston friction, and piston skirt or crosshead slipper friction. The inertia forces resists the piston motion during the time the piston is accelerating from the top centre position and reaching its maximum velocity ; during the lower part of the piston stroke when the piston is being retarded the retardation assists the movement of the piston. When the piston is moving upwards from the bottom center position the inertia forces retard piston movement until the piston reaches the maximum velocity. When the piston is being retarded the inertia forces assist the piston motion. The length of the connecting rod must be known. This is drawn to the same scale as the base of the indicator diagram. The positions of the ordinates can then be corrected to obtain their relative crank angles. When this has been done the ordinates from the diagram can be plotted on the time or crank angle base . See later and Fig 17.8 which shows how this is carried out) If the gas pressure at any point is multiplied by the area of the piston the diagram can be drawn with the ordinates as the force acting on the piston. This diagram will be identical in form with the plot of the gas pressure because the area of the piston has a constant value.

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Diagram of forces acting on a piston can be converted to a diagram showing the tangential forces acting on the crankpin. The force acting on a piston at any point in the stroke is obtained from the product of the pressure at any point in the stroke and the area of the piston. If the effect of the inertia force is ignored, the force acting on the piston due to gas pressure is the same as the force acting on the crosshead. This force can be drawn as a vector in a triangle of forces from which the force acting on the connecting rod may be obtained. The force acting on the connecting rod can then be drawn as a vector in another triangle of forces to obtain the tangential force acting on the crankpin. The values obtained can then be plotted as ordinates on a time base. The method of carrying out this procedure is as follows. Fig 17.8 (a) The atmospheric line of the indicator card or diagram is projected to the right to accommodate the scale length of the connecting rod and crankpin circle. The length of the indicator card and diameter of the crankpin circle will be the same. In the example shown the connecting rod length is three times the crank throw. The crankpin circle has been devided into 10 degree intervals. Using a compass set to the scale length of the connecting rod , arcs are swung from the various points on the crankpin circle to pass through the atmospheric line on the indicator card. The height of the ordinate at each point is then lifted with dividers and carefully measured. The product of ordinate height and spring number gives the cylinder pressure at that point in the piston stroke. The calculated value for the cylinder pressure at each ordinate is recorded. Fig 17.8(b) shows the base line drawn up to represent 360 degrees of crank rotation divided up into 10 degree intervals. The cylinder pressure recorded for each ordinate is set up to some scale on the corresponding ordinates in (b) The curve showing the gas pressure in the cylinder may then be drawn in as shown. Fig 17.8 shows the line of the piston set up vertically and the crankpin circle drawn to the same scale as in (a). An arc corresponding to the scale length of the connecting rod is swung from point of the crankpin circle, corresponding to the point on the crankpin circle shown in figs 17.8(a) and (b) to pass through the line of stroke. In Fig 17.8(d) the gas pressure is set up in a vector diagram a-c. The angle of the connecting rod to the line of the piston stroke is set up at the correct angle as shown in a-b , this will run parallel to the line of the connecting rod shown in Fig 17.8 . The length of the vector (a-b) represent the force acting down the connecting rod per unit area of piston. The vector (b-d) passing through point (b) is drawn parallel to the normal on the crankpin circle. The line of the crank is drawn parallel to the line of the crank in Fig 17.8 to pass through point (a) in fig 17.8(d) The vector b-d represents the force acting tangentially to the crankpin to the unit area of piston. The product of this force , the area of the piston and the length of the crankthrow gives the torque acting on the crankshaft at this point in the piston stroke. The value of the torque is plotted to some scale on fig 17.8 (b). This is repeated for each of the crank positions drawn up in (a). After marking in each torque value the curve of torque values plotted against crank angle may be drawn in. When dealing with four stroke cycle engines the base of the cycle must extend over 720 degrees of crank rotation.

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The curve obtained from plotting the tangential force on the crankpin can be broken down into various harmonics. It can be broken down to set of curves representing the half order, first order, one and a half order, second order and two and a half order harmonics. Note that there are no half order harmonics in two stroke cycle engines. If three masses were attached together by two relatively flexible shafts let us see how the system vibrates torsion ally. Let one mass be located between the two flexible shaft sections and the other masses be fitted at opposite ends on each side of the central mass. If the system is supported by frictionless bearings it can be shown that there are two modes of natural torsional vibration. The system is referred to as three mass system. In this mode , two of the masses would move in one direction while the other mass moved in the opposite direction, and vice versa. The nodal point would naturally be on the section of shafting where the masses moved in opposite directions. In the second mode of torsional vibrations the central mass would move in one direction while the two outer masses moved in the opposite direction and vice versa. This mode of operation has two nodes one on each section of shafting.

Curves obtained from Fourier Analysis Curve obtained by plotting the tangential force on the crankpin after breaking down into its various harmonics

Generally it can be assumed that the number of nodes will be one less than the number of masses in the system, or equal to the number of lengths of elastic connecting shaft sections.

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If a six cylinder engine is connected to a propeller how many nodes would there be and how many modes of natural vibration could such a system have. If each crank is considered as a mass there will be six masses within the engine, the mass of the flywheel, and the mass of the propeller. This is equal to total of eight masses. The possible number of nodes could be up to seven. From this it may be assumed that there could be seven different modes of vibration. The first mode of vibration would have one node, the second two nodes , the third three nodes and so on up to seven. Generally the lower modes of vibration are investigated and analysed as they are normally of more importance.; the higher modes of vibration are often outside the operating speed range of the engine. CRITICAL SPEED AND BARRED SPEED RANGE The graph of the turning moment from a single cylinder engine is made up from a combination of the forces acting on the pistons and the inertia forces from the running gear. The turning moment reaches a peak each 720 from crank rotation in a four stroke engine and each 360 for a two stroke engine. In multi cylinder engines there will be a peak for each cylinder. In a four stroke engine the number of peaks will therefore equal the number of cylinders firing in 720of crank rotation or half the number of cylinders for 360 of rotation. In two stroke cycle engines the number of peaks for revolution will be equal to the number of cylinders. If the peaks per 360 of crank rotation are multiplied by the engine revs/ min we can get a frequency per minute. If this frequency is similar to any one of the various natural frequencies of the engine shafting system we have a resonant condition. ( top paragraph slide 98) The speed of the engine in revs/ min at which the resonant condition occurs is referred to as the critical speed. The high stresses associated with resonant condition start to build up as the engine speed approaches the critical speed, and do not come back to some safe value until the engine speed is beyond the critical speed. The unsafe stresses either side of the critical speed are referred to as the flank stresses. The barred speed range of an engine is the range of speed from the beginning of the build- up of unsafe flank stresses to the dying away of these stresses at some higher speed. Engine must not be. operated at speeds within the barred speed range. Effect of natural frequency of two masses when (a) An increase or reduction in the distance between the masses. (b) Increase or reduction in one of the masses. Increase and reduction of shaft diameter. a) An increase in the distance between the masses reduces the natural frequency of the system. And the converse is also true. b) Increasing the size of one of the masses so that there is an increase in mass moment of inertia will cause a reduction in natural frequency. of the system. ; decreasing the mass moment of inertia increases the natural frequency. c) An increase in the shaft diameter will make the shaft stiffer. ; consequently the natural frequency of the system would be increased.

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SPARE PRPELLER If the spare propeller and working propeller are made of similar materials and have similar characteristics the barred speed will not alter. But if, for example, the working propeller is made of one of the lighter high tensile bronzes and the spare propeller is made of cast iron there will be a considerable difference in their weights. Consequently there will be a difference in their mass moments of inertia (WK2) and when the spare propeller is fitted the barred speed will change. It can generally be assumed that if a heavier propeller is fitted the natural frequency of the shafting system will be reduced. The actual amount of change will depend on various factors. Where there is a large difference between the weights of the spare propeller and the working propeller , details are given at the time the torsional vibration characteristics are submitted by the engine builders to the classification society for their approval. The actual change in the barred speed range is usually small and is often covered by making the red sector on the tachometer sufficiently large to include both the working and spare propeller barred ranges. What improvements could be done to the shafting system if the preliminary design characteristics of torsional vibration is found to be unsatisfactory. -- If the system is to run at constant speed ( diesel generator) there is normally no great difficulty in bringing the critical speed outside of the operating speed of the engine. This can usually be done by increasing the torsional stiffness of the shafting system. In a shafting system associated with propulsion machinery it becomes more difficult to modify the natural frequency of the system, as usually more than one mode of vibration must be covered. If alterations to the torsional stiffness of shafting , or changing the values or location of the masses does not give the desired results , additional masses must be brought into the system. Sometimes the additional mass is in the form of damper or detuner. In geared propulsion systems, couplings giving some damping effect can be fitted between the engines and the gear box. ANTI-NODE It was shown earlier that within a vibrating system certain points did not move or had zero amplitudes. These points having zero amplitudes were referred to as nodes. The anti-nodes within the vibrating system are those points where the amplitudes of vibratory movement have maximum values.

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We have already discussed the nodal points and the anti-nodal points when considering the ship as a beam. Also there are such points within the shafting system depending on the mode of vibration. At the nodal points in a shafting system is subjected to torsional vibration there is no torque variation or amplitude arising out of vibration. As there is no torque variation or amplitude nothing is available activate the movement of the seismic mass in the detuner or damper. No detuning or damping can therefore take place. Detuners and dampers are most effective are most effective if they are fitted at anti-nodes . In practice this may not be possible so they are often fitted at the forward end of the engine. There is always enough vibratory movement at the forward end of the crankshaft to activate fully the detuning and damping devices,. In some special cases detuners have been fitted at the aft end of the engine and on the intermediate shafting.

However it is desirable to have the drive for the camshaft and fuel pumps fitted at or near a nodal point on the crankshaft. This is because if the drive is taken from a nodal point the turning moment is even; this is desirable as it prevents any crankshaft torsional vibration from being transmitted to the fuel pump and camshaft drives. If the drive is taken from some point in the crankshaft where there is appreciable torsional amplitude , considerable variation in torque will be transmitted through to the camshaft and fuel pump shafts. The torque variation can cause heavy loads to come on the drive chains or gearing. Chains may dampen the vibration to some extent, but when the drive is through gearing it may impose heavy loads and cause fatigue failure of gear teeth.. This is more likely to occur in idler wheels. If drives are also taken to the governor a speed increase is involved through gearing; the torque variation may then cause the governor drive gearing to wear excessively.

The elastic curve line drawn for each mode of vibration crosses the base line or line of zero amplitude at the nodal points. An examination of the nodal points and their position relative to the crankshaft drive will show if the drive is at nodal point and indicate the amplitude of various modes. On the actual engine on a deep sea ship , where the number of hours running ahead is very large relative to running astern , the wear pattern of the crankshaft gear and camshaft gear teeth will show wear on both sides of the teeth if any appreciable amplitude or torque variation exists. If wear is present on both sides of the teeth , the teeth on idler gears should be inspected periodically for fatigue failure starting at the root fillets.. More particularly if the root fillet radius is very small.

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Some medium speed engines the cam shaft drive is fitted with dampers. They are fitted for either of the following reasons. 1 They may be fitted to smooth out the torque variations produced by the engine at the point where the camshaft drive gear is fitted on the crankshaft 2 In some engines, particularly those where the fuel pumps are driven by the main camshaft, the variation in torque driving the camshaft through two revolutions can be very wide and in many cases ( particularly with small cylinder numbers) the torque may have negative values for part of the time When the camshaft has negative torque values it is actually assisting in driving the crankshaft and in so doing reverses the loading on the driven and driving gears. The function of the damper in this case to smooth out the back driving periods, reduce tooth loads and noise , as back lash is taken up. Let us see if someone says that a third order , second degree vibration existed at some engine speed of the main propulsion plant. A vibration of the second degree is the same as the second mode of vibration. It indicates that when the system is vibrating two nodes are present. The third order indicates that the engine speed is such that the number of impulses per revolution coincides with the third harmonic of the natural frequency of the system.( Refer to slide 103) Note; In four stroke cycle engines order harmonics are possible . For example a 1 order harmonic would have a frequency of 1 times the fundamental frequency.

If a natural frequency of a shafting system is N and the speed of the engine is such that a second order critical speed exists what is the speed of the crankshaft?
It can be shown that the natural frequency divided by the critical speed gives the order of the critical speed. natural frequency = order number critical speed = natural frequency critical speed order number In the case given critical speed = N/2 = natural frequency. ( Slide 103.)

Node is at the fixed point within a vibratory system. In main engine (direct drive) the propeller when running ahead, forces the shafting system to take up a position where the ahead face of the thrust meets the thrust pads. This becomes the fixed point or the node in the system. Similarly the node will be coincident with the crankshaft location bearing ina diesel generator sets. Any vibratory movement in an axial direction will therefore take place away from the thrust bearing or location bearing.

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AXIAL VIBRATION is usually found within the crankshaft section of the system and makes itself manifest by movement of the forward section of the crankshaft; in multi-cylinder, in-line, slow speed engines the movement may reach an appreciable amount. The shortening and lengthening of the crankshaft journals and crankpins due to shear stresses arising out of the torque placed on them may set up axial vibration. In older engines with more flexible crankshafts this may be exacerbated by bending of the crankwebs., crankpins, and journals in a similar manner to the to the vibration in a tuning fork. ( Refer slide 98)
Axial vibrations can be controlled by a damper on the forward end of the crankshaft. The damper usually consists of a piston moving in a cylinder. The movement of the piston causes oil to be forced through small openings so that the resistance to movement is set up. The resistance damp out the vibration.

When a shaft is vibrating torsion ally how can the stresses caused by the vibration be ascertained. What happens when the shaft is driving an external load? Will it increase the stress. If a two mass system is vibrating it was found that the line scribed on the shaft in the unstressed condition swing between two positions and that the line would swing radially with the nodal point as the centre. The elastic line gives the position of extreme displacement. The angle subtended between the elastic line and the scribed line in the zero stress position at the nodal point gives the angular strain along the surface of the shaft. Let this angle be radians. Let the distance from the node to none of the masses be l , and the angular displacement of this mass be , And the diameter of the shaft be D . It can be shown l = D 2 From which = 2l / D Let q be the stress from the torsional vibration (shear stress) and C be the modulus of rigidity ( shear modulus) From torsion formula q = C or q = CD x2l D/2 l 2l D and q = C
The stress caused by the torsional vibration is equal to the product of modulus of rigidity of the shaft material and the angular strain on the surface of the shaft. T his stress, from the torsional vibration , is additive to the stress from the torque set up by the external load. When torsional vibration is taking place, therefore, the maximum stress is equal to the addition of stress from the external load , the stress from the vibration, and the induced stress from the bending action which also takes place when the engine is in operation.

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