Working principle of a transformer

A transformer is static (or stationary) piece of apparatus which: 1.Transfers electric power from one circuit to another. 2.It does so without a change in frequency. 3.The principle is based on mutual induction between two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux.

Basic parts of a transformer

Basically a transformer consists o f a : 1.A primary coil or winding. 2.A secondary coil or winding. 3.A core that supports the coils or the windings

Transformer construction
Main constructional elements of Transformers are A) Magnetic circuit B) Electric Circuit C) Terminals D) Tank E) Protective Circuit & Monitoring Core & clamping structure Winding,Insulation, Bracing devices. Tapping, Tapping switches, Terminal Insulator, Leads , Bushings Oil, Cooling devices, conservator, piping, Breather Buchholz relay, WTI, OTI, Oil surge relay pressure relief device, MOG

Transformer construction
A)Magnetic Circuit: The core provides closed path for flux. It is made up of CRGO insulated laminations. (CRGO has iron loss of about 1.3 W / Kg at 1.6 Tesla ) B)Electric Circuit: Winding, insulation & bracing are constructional parts of electrical circuit of transformers. This is the most vulnerable part of transformer because of direct association with power system. Must be designed to withstand voltage stress resulting from system fault, transient over voltage and thermal stresses (lightening or switching surges)

Transformer construction

Insulation: Commonly used material are Paper or press board Oil is used as insulating medium Insulating varnish applied to make coil mechanically strong.

C) Terminal: Leads : Connection of winding are (copper rod or bus bar) taken to bushing. Bushing: Up to 33 kV porcelain bushing are used. Above 33 kV, condenser & oil filled terminal bushings are used.

Transformer construction
D) Transformer tank Cooling: Small transformers are air cooled whereas large transformers are provided with oil or oil & air cooling . The transformer tank is designed to withstand full vacuum. Types of Cooling: Air insulated AN AF ANAN air cooled Air Natural Forced Air Cooling Natural Air cooling inside and outside transformer

Transformer construction
Oil immersed air cooled ONAN ONAF OFAN OFAF Natural Oil Circulation. Natural Air flow Natural oil and forced air flow Forced Oil & Natural Air Circulation Forced Oil and Forced Air Circulation

Oil immersed & water cooled ONWF OFWF Natural Oil, water (internal) cooler Forced oil, water (external) cooler

Transformer construction
E) Protective devices : Various protective devices mounted on transformer are as follows: Bucchholz Relay Gas actuated relay, Transformer Internal fault. WTI/OTI Provided for alarm and / OR trip against over load PR Device To release internal pressure generated in the transformer during fault. MOG Alarm when oil level is low Oil Surge Relay To release actual pressure generated during fault in OLTC

Accessories & their functions

Terminal & Bushing : Type of Bushing, terminal is selected depending on voltage, currents & operating conditions. Porcelain, condenser type of oil filled bushings are used as per requirement.

Cable Boxes : Cable boxes are primarily designed for receiving and protecting cable ends and ensure effective sealing of cable against ingress of moisture.

Conservator : It is provided to accommodate change in oil volume caused due to change in loads or ambient conditions.

Breather :Whenever there is change in ambient temperature or load , there is a change in oil temperature and hence the volume of oil. Increase in volume causes the air above oil level in conservator to be pushed out and decrease causes air to be drawn in. Thus the transformer breathes.

Accessories & their functions

When air is breathed in, moisture and dust from atmosphere is sucked in . Silica gel crystals absorb moisture. Color of silica gel is blue when dry and turns pink when absorbs moisture. Oil cup at the bottom is filled with oil which acts as coarse filter and removes dust form outside air.
Magnetic Oil Level gauge:

This is a dial instrument operated by magnetic coupling from a float on oil surface. It is normally fitted with contact to give alarm for low oil level.

Accessories & their functions

Bourdon tube with a pointer arrangement mounted in a case comprising of a reading dial and a glass cover. There is a temperature sensing bulb which communicates to the bourdon tube through the armored capillary.

Oil temperature indicator:

Winding temperature indicator: It comprises of following: WTI pot :mounted at top of transformer tank. Oil in pot is temp. of top oil. Imae coil:Heater coil and develops additional hear raising temperature of oil incide heater coil. WTI CT: Mounted on one of the line lead with secondary connected to image coil WTI: The bulb of the WTI is immersed in oil inside image col .Temperature of this oil is dependent on top oil temperature and load on transformer.

Accessories & their functions

Buchholz Relay : Gas & oil operated relay detects formation of gas or development of sudden pressure inside the oil of transformer. Any electrical fault inside the transformer is accompanied by evolution of gas.

Pressure Relief Device: This is provided to relieve the internal pressure in the event of major fault within the transformer.

Tapping Switch: To maintain secondary voltages reasonably constant at load end when incoming voltage and/or load on transformer changes, it is necessary to change the voltage ratio (I.e, turns ratio of the winding) of the transformer. This is achieved by changing the number of turns ( HT Side) by operating a switch called as tapping switch. Depending on the requirement, off circuit or on load tap changer is installed in the transformer.

Accessories & their functions

Radiators : The function of radiator is to limit the temperature of oil and winding by dissipating heat that is generated due to losses within transformer while in service. When transformer is in operation warm oil rises and enters the radiator from the top valve cools and then descend to enter the bottom of the tank.

Other Accessories: Inspection cover, jacking lugs, Earthing terminals, Rating Plate, Filter valve, Drain Valve, Terminal marking, Rollers etc.

DGA

Insulating materials within transformer breakdown to liberate gases. The identity of these gases indicate the type of fault and the rate of gas generation indicate the severity of fault. Causes of fault gases can be divided into three categories: Corona or partial discharge

DGA

Pyrolisis or thermal heating Arcing Arcing is the most severe fault (intensity of energy that is dissipated per unit time per unit volume of the fault) ,less with heating, least with corona. One of the most important technique to indicate the health of a transformer.

Major (Minor) fault gases under various fault conditions

Sampling And Labeling Procedure Sampling

Dry Weather, avoid contamination Clean, dry, leak proof glass or stainless steel container. Equipment operating normally Take safety precautions. Sample bottle must be full without any air trap completely sealed and should be properly labeled.

FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING
NEW TRANSFORMERS

FIRST

DGA TEST : BEFORE HEAT RUN TEST ON TRANSFORMER SECOND DGA TEST : AFTER HEAT RUN TEST ON TRANSFORMER (2&24 HRS) THIRD DGA TEST : BEFORE ENERGIZING TRANSFORMER (B.M.) FOURTH DGA TEST : WITHIN THREE MONTHS OF SERVICE

FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING
IN-SERVICE TRANSFORMERS

ANNUALLY AS A ROUTINE CKECKING BEFORE (LATEST DATA) & AFTER FILTRATION /TOPPING UP

TRANSFORMERS AFTER OVERHAULING, REPAIRS, MAINTANANCE

BEFORE ENERGISING TRANSFORMER WITHIN THREE MONTHS OF SERVICE

Interpretation of Results

Ensure that gas concentrations are high enough to warrant further investigation. Gas being present even in normal operating condition without any fault being present. Gases might have formed on the occasion of previous faults or during repairs by brazing, welding etc., and not completely removed. Since gases are produced in normal ageing also, the service duration of the oil has to be taken into account.

PERMISSIBLE LIMITS OF DISSOLVED GASES IN

OIL OF A HEALTHY TRANSFORMER
GAS <4YRS IN PPM) 4-10 YRS (PPM) >10 YRS (PPM)
GAS <4YRS IN PPM) 4-10 YRS (PPM) >10 YRS (PPM) H2 100-150 50-70 200-300 CH4 50-70 100-150 200-300 200-300 100-150 200-400

H2

100-150

200-300 100-150 30-50 150-200 100-150 400-500 4000-5000

200-300 200-300 100-150 200-400 800-1000 600-700 9000-12000

CH4

C2H2 20-30

C2H2 20-30 30-50

150-200

C2H4 100-150

C2H4 100-150 C2H6 30-50 100-150

CO CO2 200-300 400-500 C2H6 30-50 3000-3500 4000-5000

800-1000 600-700

9000-12000

CO

200-300

CO2 3000-3500

Condition monitoring of transformer oil

Role of transformer oil:

It is used as coolant. It is used as insulating material.

Reasons for deterioration of transformer oil

Physical contamination: Release of fibrous impurities by paper, pressboard, wood and cotton tapes in contact with oil for longer period at elevated temperatures. Due to dissolution of varnish . Due to foreign matters like dust, metallic particles and other solid impurities Due to moisture

Condition monitoring of transformer oil

Effects: Life is reduced by high sludge formation. Electrical properties of insulating oil get disturbed due to conductivity of suspended particles. Chemical deterioration: It is due to oxidation. Effects of oxidation: Results in acids, sludge .Acid attack solid insulation and metal. Sludge causes poor thermal conduction and mechanical hindrance to proper oil circulation.

Condition monitoring of transformer oil

Contamination of gases: Gases are present in oil due to following: Those which dissolve in the oil from atmosphere. Those which are generated inside due to thermal decomposition of oil, decomposition of oil by arcing. Effects of gases: The ignition of inflammable gases can be causes by corona occurring in th air space or arcing.

Transformer oil testing

Transformer oil testing is carried out to detect abnormalities in transformer and based on test results corrective actins can be taken before actual failure takes place. To evaluate quality of oil To decide periodic maintenance (filtration. reclamation etc) To know health of transformer (by DGA) To estimate remaining life of transformer

Oil Testing

New oil (IS-335)- 15 tests Oil in service (IS-1866)- 8 tests

Dielectric strength (BDV) Dielectric dissipation factor (Tan delta) Resistivity Neutralisation value (Acidity) Flash point Water content Sludge Interfacial tension

Transformer oil testing

1.Physical condition of the oil:
Color ,clarity and odour gives information regarding quality of oil and presence of certain contaminants in oil. Important parameter as used as insulating medium. This test gives conductive contaminants and moisture present in oil.

2.Electrical strength:

3.Water content:

Reveals total water content ,leak or cellulosic deterioration

Transformer oil testing

4.Specific resistance (Resistivity):
This test provides a measure of the total soluble contaminants and ageing products .It is numerically equal to the resistance between opposite faces of a centimeter cue of the oil and is expressed as ohm com. This test provides a measure of the total soluble and ageing products. contaminants

5.Dissipation factor:

6.Neutralisation value:

This test gives acid present in the oil. It is the no. of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to neutralise completely the acids produced in one gram of oil.

Transformer oil testing

7.Interfacial tension test:
This test provides a measure of sludge and polar component present in oil. It is expressed as molecular attractive force between the molecules of water and oil at oil-water interface.

8.Flash point:
Sudden drop in flashpoint is indicative of unsafe working condition of transformer.

Scheduled of oil characteristics for transformer in service as per IS : 1866-2000

Property Breakdown voltage (kV), Min. Water content (ppm), Max. Neutralization value (mg KOH/g), Max. Sediment & Sludge, % by mass Highest Voltage of equipment, kV

< 72.5
More than 30 Max. 95 Max. 0.3 ND

72.5 to 170
More than 40 Max. 40 Max. 0.3 ND 0.1 x 1012

> 170
More than 50 Max. 20 Max. .0.3 ND 0.1 x 1012

Resistivity @ 90C x 1012 0.1 x 1012 (ohm-cm), Min.

Property

Highest Voltage of equipment, kV

< 72.5 Dielectric dissipation factor @ 90C, Max.

Interfacial tension (mN/m), Min. Flash Point, (C), Min.

72.5 to 170 1.0

15 125

> 170 0.2

15 125

1.0
15 125

Condition Monitoring - Oil testing

Sr. No. Test Remedial Action for Deviations from permissible limits 1 Electric strength 2.5 mm gap (Break down voltage) 2 3 Water content Sediment and / or precipitable sludge Oil filtration Oil filtration Oil filtration

Condition Monitoring - Oil testing

Sr. No. 4 Specific resistance (Resistivity at 90 deg.C 5 Dielectric dissipation factor ( tan ) 6 Neutralisation value (total acidity) of the oil 7 Inter facial tension of the oil against water at room temperature Replace the oil Replace the oil Test Remedial Action for Deviations from permissible limits Oil filtration if the tan value permits other wise replace the oil Replace the oil

Furanic compound test

Life of transformer is dependent on life of solid insulation and life limit is determined by thermal degradation of winding paper. Kraft insulation paper is used as solid insulation.

Furanic compound test

When oil soaked paper is damaged by heat, some oil soluble compound are released into oil called furans. Paper is made of cellulose consisting of log chains of glucose rings joined by glycosidic bonds. During degradation bonds are broken and glucose rings are opened. Glucose is unstable which further degrades which are more stable and oil soluble called furans.

Furanic Compounds

The most commonly found furanic derivative is 2furfuraldehyde(2 FAL) and other derivatives are 2- furfuryl alcohol (2 FOL) , 2- Acetyl furan (2 ACF), 5- hydroxymethyl furfuraldehyde,(5HMF) 5 methyl furfuraldehyde(5MEF).

FURANS AND GASES

Cellulose degradation=Glucose+H2O+CO+CO2+Organic acids. With DGA and furan test extent of paper damage can be seen. CO and CO2 are determined by DGA and are considered as level indicator for cellulosic degradation. In case of severe localised paper damage ,high furans and high gas content can be seen. In case general heating slow building of furans without necessarily seeing an increase of gas content.

Degree of polymerization (DP)

Degree of polymerization (DP) is another way of expressing the molecular weight. Physical properties of the paper depends on the degree of polymerization of paper

M = Dp x m Where M= molecular weight of the polymer Dp = the degree of polymerization and m = the molecular weight of monomer.

Degree of polymerization (DP)

DP value 1000 to 1500 i.e,1000 to 1500 glucose units are present in cellulose molecule. Degradation of paper is due to temperature, water ad oxygen. When DP value<300,paer becomes brittle and more suspectible to failure. DP relates directly to cellulosic degradation

Correlation between Dp and Furan

The absolute correlation of Furan to DP is difficult, but can be related fairly accurately extent through an empirical formula. Dp = - 100 ln (2 FAL) +709

INSULATION RESISTANCE AND POLARISATION INDEX TESTS

These tests are performed to verify state of dryness if insulation. These tests are intended to check overall cleanliness ,dryness ,localized defects and general condition of insulation system. When DC voltage is applied across insulation, the current flows is the resultant of three currents: Capacitive charging current Absorption current Leakage current

S
C DC Voltage source RL RA

Absorption current

Conduction or leakage current

Capacitance charging current

INSULATION RESISTANCE AND POLARISATION INDEX TESTS

Capacitance leakage current:

The current lasts for a few seconds as DC voltage is applied and drops out after the insulation is charged to its full voltage. The time depends on the size and capacitance of the test object. Larger time for larger capacitance objects.

INSULATION RESISTANCE AND POLARISATION INDEX TESTS

Absorption leakage current:

It is caused by polarisation of molecules within dielectric material. In low capacitance equipments the current is high for first few seconds and decrease slowly to nearly zero. In high capacitance equipment or wet and contaminated insulation ,there will be no decrease of absorption current for long time.

Conduction or leakage current:

Conduction or leakage current

This is the current that normally flows through the insulation ,between conductors or conductors to ground. It increases quickly and becomes stable. This current increases as insulation deteriorates and becomes predominant after absorption current vanishes. It is steady and time independent .Hence the important current for measuring insulation resistance.

Interpretation of results:

If IR value shows a decreasing trend it shows gradual deterioration of insulation quality due to humidity ,dust accumulation etc.. A very sharp drop indicates insulation failure.

IR MEASUREMENTS

THE TEST VOLTAGES FOR IR MEASUREMENT OF TRANSFORMER ARE AS UNDER. RATING 415/440 V 3.3 kV TEST VOLTAGE 500 V 1000 V

6.6 kV
11 kV & ABOVE

2500 V
5000 V

THE MINIMUM ACCEPTABLE LOWER LIMIT FOR IR VALUES IS GIVEN IN STANDARDS AS V L-L + 1 M

Polarisation index measurements

Polarisation Index=600sec IR value/60 sec IR value PI<1 , for bad insulation and PI in the range of 1.2 to 2 can be considered as an indication of good insulation. A very high value of PI is also not advisable since it shows the brittleness of insulation .

STEP VOLTAGE TEST

The DC voltage is applied in various steps and in each step the leakage current is noted. Step duration:60 seconds. The variation of this leakage current (or IR) with test voltage gives the condition of insulation. If insulation is dry, clean and with out physical damages shall show the same value at all voltage levels. If insulation value decreases at higher voltage levels ,may be due to dirt, moisture, cracking, aging etc. The application of increased voltage creates electrical stresses on internal insulation cracks. This can reveal aging and physical damage in relatively clean and dry insulation which would have not been apparent at lower voltages.

CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENTS

THE CAPACITANCE VALUE IS DEPENDENT ON

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIELECTRIC MATERIAL THE PHYSICAL CONFIGURATION OF THE ELECTRODES

A C = ----

d Void /impurities may discharge partially during a voltage apication and the effective distance between eectrodes ncreases.

HENCE C WILL INCREASE WITH INCREASE IN VOLTAGE, WHICH INDICATES PRESENCE OF PD AND THE DETERIORATION OF INSULATION A
DIELECTRIC

ELECTRODE

d
ELECTRODE

TAN MEASUREMENTS

THE TAN VALUE DIRECTLY INDICATES THE POWER DISSIPATED BY THE INSULATION
Ic

90

Ic

IT INCREASES WITH INSULATION DETERIORATION AND SERVES AS AN EARLY INDICATOR OF FAILURE HAZARDS

Concept of Tan

In an ideal capcitor the voltage and current are phase shifted by 90 deg.and current through insulation is capacitive. If there are impurities in insulation,the resistance of insulation decrease resulting in increase of resistive current. Thus the total current I = Ic + Ir which leads the voltage by a phase angle < 90. And lags the Ic by an angle .
20.4 30.6 45.9

The tangent of this angle directly indicates the heat dissipation that takes place inside the dielectric material. The values obtained on new insulation forms the reference value for periodic measurements.

Partial discharge:

It is an electrical discharge that occurs across a portion of the insulation between two conducting electrodes without completely bridging the gap. This results in localized, nearly instantaneous release of energy. The most convention unit for quantifying the PD quantity is Pico coulomb

Interprtation of results:

High value of tan-delta at low voltage gives an indication of contamination and presence of moisture content. Tan-delta tip up gives an indication of void content (variation of tan delta with applied voltage). Generally tan delta values shall not increase as applied voltage increase. A higher tan delta tip up at a applied voltage indicates presence of voids/moistures and the inception of partial discharges at this voltage. Increase in tan delta above passing of time also indicates deterioration of insulation

Transformer protection

Transformer - Protections

Over load Capability:

Working life of transformer dependent on life of insulation Rate of deterioration of insulation increases with increasing winding temperature W Winding temperature dependent on loading Transformer has substantial over load capability IF W < 80 deg.c use of life negligible If transformer is operated @ 104 deg. For every hour of operation = 2 hrs of life is lost. If transformer is operated @ 116 deg. For every hour of operation 8 hrs of life is lost Rate of using transformer life doubled for every temperature increase of 6 deg.c

Transformer - Protections
.
Relative Rate of using Life in Hours

Transformer Life Vs Temperature

100 10 1 0.1 80
Normal Ageing 98 104 1 2 Accelerated Ageing

110

92

104

116

128

140

Winding Temperature in Deg C

Transformer - Protections
Period1 24 Hrs @80oC 24 Hrs @98oC Period2 Period3 Total Life Lost 24 X 0.125 24 X 1 Loss Hrs./Day 3 24

9 Hrs @80oC 7 Hrs @80oC 8 Hrs @80oC 9 X 0.125 + 7 X1 +8 X 2

24

24 Hrs @104oC

24 X 2

48

Transformer - Protections
Criteria for overload operation For normal duty cycle, current shall not exceed 150% I RAT For emergency duty, current can exceed 150% I RAT provided associated cables, switch gear, tap changers, bushings etc. are suitable rated. Under no circumstances, Winding shall exceed 140 deg.c Oil shall exceed 115 deg.c.

Transformer - Protections

Buchholz Protection:
Relay installed in the pipe line between transformer tank and conservator Two Floats

Upper float = responds to slow accumulation of gas due to mild or incipient faults for alarm Lower float (Vane) responds to oil surge caused by major internal faults for trip Gas shall freely pass up the pipe work Extra turbulence shall not be induced in oil stream Relay shall be mounted on straight run of pipe line which should slope from transformer to conservator at an angle of 5 deg. Operating time: 100 to 200 milliseconds Petcock provided on top of housing to draw accumulated gas for analysis

Relay mounting precautions

Transformer - Protections

Buchholz Protection:
Gas actuated relay Popularly used in all countries except USA Used to detect incipient faults which may lead to major damage if allowed to continue Some Examples:

Hot spots on the core due to short in lamination insulation Core bolt insulation failure Faulty joints Inter turn faults Loss of oil due to leakage

Depends for its operation on the fact that most internal faults generate gases.

Maintenance Schedule
Frequency of Inspection Daily Item to be inspected Amb. Temp. Oil temp. Winding temp. Load current Voltage Oil level / leakage Bushing Cable boxes Breather Tap changer operation WTI/OTI IR value Remarks Check whether temp. rise is reasonable Check against rated values Take corrective action if abnormality is noticed

Half yearly

Maintenance Schedule
Frequency of Inspection Yearly Item to be inspected Remarks Oil testing Take corrective action (oil filtration / oil replacement) as per the test report Over haul the transformer if abnormality is indicated in the report Take corrective action if abnormality is noticed

Yearly

DGA analysis

Five yearly or condition monitoring report based

Over hauling of transformer