Lesson 1102

Aircraft Structures Basic Principles of Flight

Basic Concepts of Flight

PHAK Chapter 1

The Four Force Diagram

The Four Force Diagram is a basic and important concept of aviation
For level flight:
Thrust = Drag Lift = Weight

The Four Forces in Balance

A common misstatement is that all forces are equal. Not so! In mathematic terms: Thrust = Drag << Lift = Weight In laymans terms:
Thrust and Drag are equal Lift and Weight are equal (but) Thrust and Drag are much less than Lift and Weight

The Four Forces in Balance

Thrust = Drag Lift = Weight Thrust and Drag are significantly less than Lift and Weight

Axes of Movement
In flight, aircraft are free to move about all three axes:
Vertical, Lateral, Longitudinal

Aircraft movements are described in terms of:

Roll, Pitch, and Yaw

Pitch
Pitch is aircraft rotation about the lateral axis -or Pitch is placement of the nose relative to the horizon
May be described as nose up and nose down

Roll
Roll is aircraft rotation about the longitudinal axis Roll is an aircraft motion than changes the angle of bank
Expressed relative to the horizon
8

Yaw
Yaw is motion of the nose left or right about the vertical axis -or Displacement of the nose left or right of the flight path
Generally a transient motion or condition
9

Vertical Forces in Flight

In level flight, the sum of vertical forces is zero
Lift is produced by the wing Weight acts at the Center of Gravity (CG) Down force is produced by the tail to balance about the CG
10

Aircraft Structure and Components

PHAK Chapter 1

11

Aircraft Structure
Five 5 main parts
Fuselage Wings Empennage Landing gear Power Plant or Engine
12

Fuselage
The fuselage includes:
Cockpit and Cabin Cargo Area (typical) Attach Points for other parts of the structure

Bulkheads are used to separate compartments of the cabin A firewall separates the cabin from the engine compartment
13

Construction
Construction types were historically
Truss Type (Truss Frame) Monocoque (single shell), and/or Semi-monocoque

Modern composite construction uses multiple elements Current trainers are largely semimonocoque with composites advancing
14

Truss Frame Construction

Truss construction provides a skeleton, generally tubular metal, and usually covered to provide less aerodynamic drag Major structural parts of the truss are longerons and web members or braces call struts Frames were (eventually) covered with skin to reduce aerodynamic drag
15

Truss Frame Construction

Longerons give strength over longitudinal length Struts are cross-braces for rigidity Bulkheads give shape to the skin Stringers help support the skin
16

Monocoque Construction
Monocoque is French for single shell Monocoque construction uses internal bulkheads and formers for shape with a stressed-skin covering that provides the majority of the strength
17

Semi-monocoque Construction
Semi-monocoque is similar to monocoque
The skin is a structural member and bears loads

Semi-monocoque is a hybrid (skin over substructure)

Some truss-frame type members are used for heavy loads and long dimensions Formers and stringers are used to provide shape and stiffness to the stressed skin
18

Semi-monocoque Construction
Stringers allow the use of thinner sheet metal in larger areas Thinner sheet metal provides less weight
Less weight = better performance, smaller power plant, lighter landing gear

19

Advantages/Disadvantages
Truss frame
Strong but heavy Not particularly aerodynamic

Monocoque
Lighter than truss frame in most areas More easily streamlined Requires thick skin for long support dimensions

20

Advantages/Disadvantages
Semi-monocoque is the best of both
Truss-type members where needed for strength Monocoque where skin is effective in load bearing Selective support for skin to reduce weight
Adds manufacturing complexity

21

Advantages/Disadvantages
Monocoque and semi-monocoque both suffer from one serious problem: stressed skin
Once stressed skin is punctured, dented, torn, or buckled it looses a significant amount of strength

22

Composite Construction
Composite construction uses a matrix such as fiberglass, carbon fiber, or Kevlar as a web for epoxy resin These materials may be placed over a foam core for shape during construction and minor internal support

23

Advantages/Disadvantages
Composite construction can be made lighter in many applications
Easily shaped during construction Varying thickness as required to meet design loads with sufficient margin

24

Advantages/Disadvantages
Composite construction
Does not suffer from metal fatigue and can have longer life Is not as fragile as stressed skin in the presence of minor damage May suffer hidden damage from low-impact damage

25

Advantages/Disadvantages
Composite construction
May suffer hidden damage from even lowenergy impact

Damage assessment may be difficult

26

Current Fleet Construction

Many modern aircraft incorporate semimonocoque and composite elements in construction
Ease of manufacture Strength Weight Cost

27

Current Fleet Construction

Aircraft are classified by their major construction type
Most current trainers and GA aircraft are semi-monocoque

Composite construction is gaining popularity very rapidly

28

Wings
An airfoil is a surface that reacts dynamically with the air to create lift
More on aerodynamics later

Wings produce Lift

In opposition to Weight (gravity) In opposition to maneuvering loads

Wing shapes are varied to optimize desired performance (speed, drag, & weight)

29

Wings
Placement Airplanes may be:
High-, mid-, or lowwing Mid-wing is less common due to the carry-through structure required

30

Wings
Airplane wings may be:
Strut-braced Cantilevered Semi-cantilevered

31

Wing Configurations
Airplanes may be:
Mono- or bi-plane Mono-plane has one set of wings divided by the fuselage or a single wing structure on a continuous spar

32

Wing components
Principle parts of a wing are the:
Spar(s) Ribs Stringers, and Skin

33

The Spar
The Spar is the major load-bearing member of the wing
The spar may be a single carrythrough element or a spar in each wing connected to fuselage attach points
34

The Ribs
Ribs define the section shape of the wing
Shape may vary or taper along the wing, requiring different ribs
35

Stringers
Stringers are spanwise members similar to longerons along the fuselage
Stringers are intended to reinforce or stiffen stressed skin rather than provide frame strength

36

Other Wing Components

Wings usually provide space for an integral or bladdertype fuel tank For retractable gear aircraft, the wing often houses the gear in the retracted position
37

Other Wing Functions

Wings provide structural attach points and/or mounts for several other components
Landing gear for many low-wing aircraft Wing Flaps Ailerons Landing/taxi lights Position and anticollision lights Pitot probe or pitot-static mast

38

Wing-Attached Flight Controls

Ailerons are used for roll control
Located on the outboard portion of the wing in general aviation aircraft Operated by a control yoke or joystick
39

Wing-Attached Flight Controls

Wing Flaps are used to provide additional lift and lower speed for takeoff and landing
Located on the inboard portion of the wing Operated by a motor or manual lever
40

Types of Flaps
Types of flaps are:
Plain: Flap section of the wing is hinged Split: Upper wing portion remains in place Slotted: Airflow path from beneath the wing Fowler: Travels out and down

41

Types of Flaps
Plain flaps are the simplest form
Good overall performance

Split flaps form a portion of the lower part of the wing only
Less added lift than plain flaps, higher drag

42

Types of Flaps
Slotted flaps allow air flow path from beneath the wing
High lift, low stalling speed

Fowler flaps travel out and down

Increases wing area as well as shape Very effective in producing lift at low airspeeds Generally cause large pitching moments

43

Empennage the Tail Group

Empennage - From the French, feathers on an arrow Consists of:
Horizontal and Vertical Stabilizers Elevator Rudder
44

Elements of the Empennage

The Vertical Stabilizer provides directional (yaw) stability for the airplane

45

Elements of the Empennage

The Horizontal Stabilizers provide pitch stability for the airplane

46

Elements of the Empennage

The Elevator is used to control the Pitch attitude of the airplane
Operated by a control yoke or joystick

47

Elements of the Empennage

The Rudder is used to control the Yaw or directional attitude of the airplane
Operated by the rudder pedals

48

Elements of the Empennage

Trim Tabs may be provided to relieve control forces on the Rudder and/or the Elevator
Alternate arrangement is bungee or spring trim
49

Elements of the Empennage

An alternate arrangement is a flying tail or stabilator
Combines horizontal stabilizer and elevator functions into a single pivoting surface Antiservo tab is used for trim and control feedback
50

Landing Gear
May be wheels, floats, skis May be used in combination
Retractable wheels with floats Retractable or protruding wheels with skis

Land wheels may be retractable or fixed

Drag vs. complexity

51

Landing Gear Elements

Landing gear elements or components include:
Struts Tires Brakes, and Steering mechanisms

52

Landing Gear Struts

Struts provide
Lateral spacing for stability Vertical spacing for propeller ground clearance, and Shock absorption for takeoff, landing, and operation over rough surfaces

Struts may be
Leaf or tubular steel springs Oleo (pneumatic) struts with integral coil springs and shock absorbers, or Swinging or Trailing Link

53

Landing Gear Placement, Functions

Placement defines an airplane as
Tricycle (nose wheel) or Conventional (tailwheel)

Braking is provided by the main wheels

Generally actuated by the rudder pedals

Ground steering is provided by the nose or tail wheel

Steering may be free castering using differential brakes and rudder, or linkage to the rudder pedals
54

Powerplant
The Powerplant provides Thrust for flight
Opposes Drag

The Powerplant also provides power for various internal systems including
Electrical Vacuum/Pneumatic Environmental, and Hydraulic systems

55

Powerplant
A Powerplant may be reciprocating, turbine, or turboprop
Normal GA reciprocating engines generally use direct-drive props Turboprops have gearcases for speed reduction Turbine may be pure jet or provide internal turbofans

Power plants are housed in nacelles on the nose, wings, or fuselage

56

Instrumentation

57

Instrument Functions
Aircraft instruments provide data to the pilot regarding:
Aircraft attitude Flight performance Location (navigation) Systems performance and health
58

Performance Instruments
Performance Instruments give:
Altitude Speed Rate of Turn Rate of Climb

59

Control Instruments
Control Instruments give:
Angle of bank (relates to Rate of turn) Pitch angle (relates to Speed and Climb) Engine power
Tachometer Manifold pressure

60

Navigation Instruments
Navigation Instruments provide the pilot with location information and situational awareness
A variety of navigation systems are available Much more later
61

Principles of Flight
PHAK Chapter 2

62

Structure and Properties of the Atmosphere

63

Structure of the Atmosphere

More data in Lesson 16 (Weather), but the atmosphere is layered. We operate in the troposphere The atmosphere is composed of approximately:
78% Nitrogen 21% Oxygen, and 1% other gasses including argon, CO2, ozone, and water vapor

64

Structure of the Atmosphere

Standard pressure at sea level is 29.92 Hg (inches of Mercury), or 1013.25 millibars
This translates to 14.7 psi (pounds per square inch)

65

Ambient Pressure Measurement

Atmospheric pressure is measured by a Mercury Barometer
Vacuum exists in the tube above the fluid Ambient pressure pushes the surface of the pool into the tube
Zero should be at the surface of the pool

The height of the liquid column is a measure of the atmospheric pressure

66

Atmospheric Standards
A standard atmosphere must be defined because:
Atmospheric pressure changes with ground elevation Sea level changes due to tides, earth rotation, and atmospheric pressure changes Temperatures change seasonally and diurnally

67

Atmospheric Standards
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is defined as:
29.92 Hg or 1013.25 mb 15 C (59 F) at sea level

68

Atmospheric Properties
Air has density or weight
This allows it to exert static and dynamic forces against objects An important dynamic force is Lift

The higher the air density, the higher the force the air can exert

69

Atmospheric Properties
Air provides oxygen for internal combustion engines
Higher density air means more oxygen is available Therefore, higher the density of the air, the higher the Thrust available from a powerplant

70

Atmospheric Properties
The barometric or ambient pressure and the temperature determine the density of the atmosphere
Higher pressures make the air more dense
Air molecules are squeezed closer together

Higher temperatures make the air less dense

Thermal energy drives air molecules farther apart

71

Atmospheric Properties
Changes in ambient pressure occur during
Changes in weather (rising or falling barometer) Changes in altitude

Changes in temperature occur during

Changes in weather Insolation (sunlight energy) Changes in altitude

72

Atmospheric Properties
All these things affect:
How much lift the wing produces How much power the engine produces How much thrust the prop produces

and therefore Performance

73

Pressure Altitude
Pressure Altitude is the height above a theoretical standard datum plane (SDP) at a pressure of 29.92 Pressure altitude is determined by ambient atmospheric pressure only

Barometric Pressure

Pressure Altitude

Higher Lower

Lower Higher

74

Density Altitude
Remember that:
Higher temperatures will make the air less dense Lower temperatures will make the air more dense

So a temperature change in the air can mask or offset a pressure change in the air

75

Density Altitude
Density Altitude takes pressure and temperature factors into account
Density Altitude is best thought of as Pressure Altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature

Density Altitude is the performance altitude for your aircraft

76

Humidity
Humidity can affect atmospheric characteristics due to the relative mass/volume of water molecules and the displacement of oxygen molecules (O2) Humidity decreases performance but the effect is not large (typically less than 4%)

77

Physical Laws and Lift

78

Newtons Laws
Newtons 1st Law Inertia
A body at rest will remain at rest until acted on by an outside force A body in motion will remain in motion until acted on by an outside force

Newtons 2nd Law F=ma

The force exerted on an object equal to the product of the objects mass and the objects acceleration An object will be accelerated proportionally to the force exerted on it

Newtons 3rd Law equal and opposite reaction

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction

79

Newtons Laws
Newtons 3rd law is predominant in Thrust
The prop pushes against the air, the air pushes back, and the plane is propelled through the air A jet expels high velocity exhaust and the force required to accelerate the exhaust propels the plane

Not so much so for Lift

80

Magnus Effect
Air flows uniformly around a nonrotating cylinder
Drag is produced, but not lift

81

Magnus Effect
When the cylinder is rotated the air flow divides in a non-uniform manner
Circulation increases on one side of the cylinder
- Disregard streamline spacing - Observe the number of streamlines above or below

82

Magnus Effect
Increased circulation on one side creates an aerodynamic lifting force in the direction of leading edge rotation
- Disregard streamline spacing - Observe the number of streamlines above or below
83

Magnus Effect
This lift is a function of air flow and air density, and is quantified by Bernoullis Principle
- Disregard streamline spacing - Observe the number of streamlines above or below

84

The Physics
After all, this is a college course The total energy in free air (or any other fluid) must be constant if no external energy is added
Total energy is static pressure (potential energy) and velocity (kinetic energy) When one goes up, the other must go down to keep the sum constant

85

The Physics
Kinetic energy of a moving body is: x Mass x (Velocity)2 Each molecule of the fluid is an object that has kinetic energy
Knowing the total mass and number of air molecules in a volume and their change in velocity, the change in pressure can be calculated
86

Bernoullis Principle*
*Or more precisely, Bernoullis Principle of Differential Pressure To summarize first:
When velocity of a gas increases, its pressure decreases When velocity of a gas decreases, its pressure increases

87

Bernoullis Principle
A Venturi tube is a good example of Bernoullis Principle
Velocity on the left, pressure on the right

88

Bernoullis Principle
Remember that these pressure and velocity changes are highly localized and very dynamic
The velocity and pressure entering the tube is the same as the velocity and pressure exiting the tube

89

Airfoil Design

90

Airfoil Terms
Airfoils possess attributes described in the following terms:

91

Camber
Camber is the curvature of a surface
The upper and lower surfaces of the wing

92

Leading Edge
The Leading Edge is the forward-most point on an airfoil section relative to the movement of the wing
93

Trailing Edge
The Trailing Edge is the aft-most point on an airfoil section relative to the movement of the wing
94

Chord Line
The Chord Line is a straight line between the Leading Edge and the Trailing Edge

95

Mean Camber Line

The Mean Camber Line (or average camber) is an arc drawn through the halfway points of vertical lines between the upper and lower surfaces

96

Airfoils
Airfoils take many shapes for many reasons
Shape affects lift The shape of an airfoil is changed by the extension of wing flaps or the deflection of ailerons
97

Airfoils and Lift

When air moves over an airfoil, the airfoil divides the flow much like the Magnus cylinder
More air flows over the top Its velocity is higher Therefore its pressure is lower

98

Airfoils and Lift

By the same token, lower velocity and higher pressure exists below the wing
The difference in pressures above and below the wing are multiplied by the area of the wing (pressure x area = force) and this is Lift

99

Angle of Attack
The Angle of Attack of a wing is the angle between the relative wind (opposite the motion of the airplane) and the Chord Line

100

Angle of Attack (AOA)

Higher angles of attack have two consequences
1. As AOA increases (up to stall), Lift increases 2. As AOA increases, the Center of Pressure (C) moves forward

101

Angle of Attack (AOA)

We capitalize on change in lift to maneuver the airplane The change in center of pressure presents a stability problem for the wing that is offset by the tail section
102

Critical Angle of Attack (Stall)

Wing stall occurs when the critical angle of attack is exceeded and airflow separates from the upper surface of the wing
AFH Figure 4-2
103

Critical Angle of Attack (Stall)

Lift is lost until the angle of attack is reduced to reestablish air flow

AFH Figure 4-2

104

Wingtip Vortices
A consequence of the production of Lift is the production of Wingtip Vortices

105

Wingtip Vortices
A wingtip vortex is caused by higher pressure air below the wing migrating around the wingtip toward the upper surface The movement of the wing through the air induces spiraling moments
106

Wingtip Vortices
Wingtip vortices are a major contributor in the generation of Induced Drag Wingtip vortices are a serious threat to smaller aircraft operating behind large airplanes
107