Satellite Communications

1
Introduction
General concepts
Needs, advantages, and
disadvantages
Satellite characteristics
Orbits
Earth coverage
System components and design
Power sources
Communication characteristics
Spectrum and Bandwidth
Channel capacity
Frequency and Wavelength
Path losses
Antennas and beam shaping
GPS Satellite - NASA
Text
Text
Satellite Communications, Second Edition, T.
Pratt, C. Bostian, and J. Allnut, John Wilen &
Sons, 2003.
2
Other Useful References
Ippolito, Louis J., Jr., Satellite Communications Systems Engineering, John Wiley,
2008.
Kraus, J. D., Electromagnetics, McGraw-Hill, 1953.
Kraus, J. D., and Marhefka, R. J., Antennas for All Applications, Third Edition,
McGraw-Hill, 2002.
Morgan, W. L. , and Gordon, G. D., Communications Satellite Handbook, John
Wiley & Sons, 1989.
Proakis, J. G., and Salehi, M., Communication Systems Engineering, Second
Edition, Prentice-Hall, 2002.
Roddy, D, Satellite Communications, Fourth Edition, Mc Graw-Hill, 1989.
Stark, H., Tuteur, F. B., and Anderson, J. B., Modern Electrical Communications,
Second Edition, Prentice-Hall, 1988.
Tomasi, W., Advanced Electronic Communications Systems, Fifth Edition, Prentice-
Hall, 2001.



3
General Concepts of Satellites:
They orbit around the earth
Have various orbital paths (to be discussed)
They carry their own source of power
They can communicate with:
Ground stations fixed on earth surface
Moving platforms (Non-orbital)
Other orbiting satellites
4
Needs, Advantages & Disadvantages
5
Communications needs
Advantages of using satellites
Disadvantages of using satellites
Satellite Communications Needs
Space vehicle to be used as
communications platform
(Earth-Space-Earth, Space-Earth, Space-Space)
Space vehicle to be used as sensor platform
with communications
Ground station(s) (Tx/Rx)
Ground receivers (Rx only)

6
Advantages of Using Satellites
High channel capacity (>100 Mb/s)
Low error rates (P
e
~ 10
-6
)
Stable cost environment (no long-distance
cables or national boundaries)
Wide area coverage (whole North America,
for instance)
Coverage can be shaped by antenna
patterns
7
Disadvantages of Using Satellites
Expensive to launch
Expensive ground stations required
Cannot be maintained
Limited frequency spectrum
Limited orbital space (geosynchronous)
Constant ground monitoring required for
positioning and operational control

8
Satellite Characteristics
Orbiting platforms for data gathering and
communications position holding/tracking
VHF, UHF, and microwave radiation used for
communications with Ground Station(s)
Signal path losses - power limitations
Systems difficult to repair and maintain
Sensitive political environment, with competing
interests and relatively limited preferred space
11
Mission Dependent Characteristics
Orbital parameters
Height (velocity & period related to this)
Orientation (determined by application)
Location (especially for geostationary orbits)
Power sources
Solar (principal), nuclear, chemical power
Stored gas/ion sources for position adjustment

10
Satellite Application Examples
Telecommunications
Military communications
Navigation systems
Remote sensing and surveillance
Radio / Television Broadcasting
Astronomical research
Weather observation
11
Orbits
Have particular advantages and disadvantages
(See text Chapter 1)
Are determined by satellite mission
Kepplers Laws of planetary motion describe
certain orbital properties
(Covered in Lecture 2)

12
Orbital Properties
Altitude (radius to center of the earth)
Inclination with respect to the earth axis
Period of rotation about the earth
Ground coverage by the satellite
Communications path length(s)
13
Types of Orbit
14
Dr. Leila Z. Ribeiro, George Mason University
Missions Associated with Orbit Types
GEO
Primarily commercial communications
MEO
Military and research uses
LEO
Remote sensing
Global Positioning Systems
LEO and MEO Features
Earth coverage requires multiple passes
Typical pass requires about 90 minutes
Signal paths relatively short (lower losses)
Small area, high resolution ground image
Earth station tracking required
Multiple satellites for continuous coverage
(Decreases with increasing altitude -
Telstar)
16
The Geostationary (Clarke) Orbit
Arthur C. Clarke, Wireless World, February,
1945, p58.
17
Geo-Synchronous Satellite (GEO) Features
Appears fixed over point on earth equator
Each satellite can cover 120 degrees latitude
Orbital Radius = 42,164.17 km
Earth Radius = 6,378.137 km (avg)
Period (Sidereal Day) = 23.9344696 hr
(86164.090530833 seconds)
Long signal path - large path losses
18
GEO Features (continued)
Ground image area (instantaneous)
Ground track coverage (multiple orbits)
Stationarity (geostationary orbit)
Space coverage (satellite-satellite)
19
Orbital Altitudes and Problems
Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
80 - 500 km altitude
Atmospheric drag below 300 km
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
2000 - 35000 km altitude
Van Allen radiation between 200 - 1000 km
Geostationary Orbit (GEO)
35,786 km altitude (42,164.57 km radius)
Difficult orbital insertion and maintenance
20
Orbital Inclinations
Equatorial
Prograde inclined toward the east
Retrograde inclined toward the west
Inclined
Various inclination angles with respect to the
spin axis of the earth, including polar
Geostationary (on equator; no inclination)
Sun synchronous
21
Earth Coverage Calculation
22
By the Law of Sines:
and,
r
s
sin()
=
d
sin(o)
= 90 +u
The elevation angle is approximately,
cos(u) = r
s
sin(o) / d
Earth Coverage Calculation (continued)
The total coverage area on the surface of
the earth, using the previously calculated
value of ) is given by the equation,




23
A = 2tr
e
2
(1 Cos[o])
Alternate Earth Coverage Calculation
Coverage variation as a function of satellite
altitude (r
sat
)

24
o = Sin
1
r
e
r
sat

(
o = Sin
1
r
sat
r
e
Sin[o]

(
o
A = 2tr
e
2
(1 Cos[o ])
r
sat
is the radius to the
satellite from the center of
the earth


Satellite System Components
Satellite(s)
Earth station(s)
Computer systems
Information network
(Example: Internet)
25
Satellite System Design
26
Satellite network with earth stations.
Satellite Components
Receiver (receives on an uplink)
Receiving antenna
Signal processing (decode, security, encode, other)
Transmitter (transmits on a downlink)
Transmitting antenna (beam shaping)
Power and environmental control systems
Attitude control
(De)multiplexing (used in rotating satellites)
Position holding (mission dependent option)
27
Simple Satellite Schematic
28
Satellite Power Sources
Solar power panels (near-earth satellites)
Power degrades over time - relatively long
Radioactive isotopes (deep space probes)
Lower power over very long life, rarely used.
Fuel cells (space stations with resupply)
High power but need maintenance and
chemical resupply, rarely used.
Example: International Space Station
29
Solar Power
Power available in orbit: ~1400 watts of
sunlight per square meter
Conversion efficiency: ~25%
Useful power: ~350 Watts/square meter
Panel steering required for maximum power
Typical power levels: 2 - 75 kW
Photocell output degrades over time
30
Typical Solar Power Panel Example
31
Geostationary Operational Environmental
Satellites (GOES) - Ground testing of solar
panels, NASA
Type: GaAs/Ge
Voltage: 53.1 Volts
Power: 1940 Watts
( Effective Load +
Source Resistance:
1.45341 )
Satellite Communication Characteristics
Via electromagnetic waves (radio)
Typically at microwave frequencies
High losses due to path length
Many interference sources
Attenuation due to atmosphere and weather
High-gain antennas needed (dish) to make
up for path loss and noise
32
Communication Characteristics (continued)
Spectrum and Bandwidth
Channel capacity
Frequency and Wavelength
Path losses
Lect 01 - 33
Spectrum and Bandwidth
34
Electromagnetic spectrum allocations
(DC to light see next slide)
Bandwidth: the size or width (in Hertz)
of a spectrum frequency band
Frequency band: a range of frequencies in
the available spectrum.
Channel capacity increases with the
bandwidth (see Slide 42)
Electromagnetic Spectrum
35
Wikipedia
Channel Capacity
The number of error free bits of information
transmitted and received per second
Shannon (BSTJ, Vol. 27,1938)

The capacity C [bits/s] of a channel with
bandwidth W, and signal/noise power ratio S/N is

36
C = W log
2
1+
S
N
|
\

|
.
|
Frequency and Wavelength Formula
Microwave energy, at a given frequency, f
[Hz]
Moves at a velocity, v [m/s]
And has a wavelength (distance between
peak intensities), [m]
Formula: = v / f (v = c for space) Note:
The speed of light, c, in a vacuum (space) is
fixed at, c = 299 792 458 [m/s]
37
Frequencies of Interest for Satellites
38
Generally between 300 MHz and 300 GHz.
The microwave spectrum
Allows efficient generation of signal power
Energy radiated into space
Energy may be focused (beam shaping)
Efficient reception over a specified area.
Properties vary according to the frequency used:
Propagation effects (diffraction, noise, fading)
Antenna Sizes
Microwaves
39
Include frequencies from 0.3 GHz to 300 GHz.
- Line of sight propagation (space and atmosphere).
- Blockage by dense media (hills, buildings, rain)
- Wide bandwidths compared to lower frequency bands.
- Compact antennas, directionality possible.
-Reduced efficiency of generation

1 GHz to 170 GHZ spectrum divided into bands with letter
designations (see next slide)

Designated Microwave Bands
40
Wikipedia
Standard designations
For microwave bands

Common bands for satellite
communication are the L, C
and Ku bands.
Common Microwave Frequency Allocations
L band
0.950 - 1.450 GHz
Note: GPS at 1.57542 GHz
C band
3.7 - 4.2 GHz (Downlink)
5.925 - 6.425 GHz (Uplink)
Ku band
11.7 - 12.2 GHz (Downlink)
14 - 14.5 GHz (Uplink)
41
Common Microwave Frequency Allocations
Ka band
18.3 - 18.8, 19.7 - 20.2 GHz (Downlink)
30 GHz (Uplink)
V band
40 - 75 GHz
60 GHz allocated for unlicensed (WiFi) use
70, 80, and 90 GHz for other wireless
42
L-Band GPS Receiver
L-Band
Frequencies: 0.950 1.450 GHz ( ~30cm)
Uses:
Amateur radio communications
GPS devices
Features:
Patch antenna used for GPS receivers
Low rain fade - Low atmospheric atten. (long paths)
Low power
Small receiver configurations
44
C-Band
C-Band
Frequencies: 3.7 - 6.425 GHz ( ~5cm)
Uses:
TV reception (motels)
IEEE-802.11 WiFi
VSAT
Features:
Large dish antenna needed (3m diameter)
Low rain fade - Low atmospheric atten. (long paths)
Low power - terrestrial microwave interferences
46
Ku-Band
2012 Raymond P. Jefferis III 47
Ku-Band
Frequencies: 12 - 18 GHz ( ~ 2cm)
Uses:
Remote TV broadcasting
Satellite communications
VSAT
Features:
Rain, snow, ice (on dish) susceptibility
Small antenna size - high antenna gain
High power allowed
48
Ka-Band
Frequencies: 18 - 40 GHz ( ~ 1cm)
Uses:
High-resolution radar
Communications systems
Deep space communications
Features:
Obstacles interfere (buildings, vegetation, etc.)
Atmospheric absorption
49
V-Band
Frequencies: 40 to 75 GHz. ( ~ 5 mm)
Uses:
Millimeter wave radar research (very expensive!)
High capacity millimeter wave communications
Point-to-point fixed wireless systems (WiFi)
Features:
Rain fade
Obstacles block path
Atmospheric absorption
Expensive equipment
50
Millimeter Waves
Planck space exploration satellite
Planck is a flagship mission of the European Space Agency (Esa). It was
launched in May 2009 and moved to an observing position more than
a million km from Earth on its "night side".It carries two instruments
that observe the sky across nine frequency bands. The High Frequency
Instrument (HFI) operates between 100 and 857 GHz (wavelengths of
3mm to 0.35mm), and the Low Frequency Instrument (LFI) operates
between 30 and 70 GHz (wavelengths of 10mm to 4mm).
Johnson noise problems addressed
Some of its detectors operate at minus 273.05C
51
Path Losses
The loss of a radiated signal with distance
Losses increase with frequency
Satellites typically require long path lengths
( Path lengths can be over 42,000 km )

52
Causes of Path Loss
Dispersion with distance
Atmospheric absorption (Calculated in Lecture
11)
Rain, snow, ice, & cloud attenuation
(Calculated in Lecture 12)
Atmospheric noise effects resulting in
increased Bit Error Rate (BER) (Calculated in
Lecture 6)
Lect 01 - 53
Simple Path Loss Model
Free-space power loss = (4d / )
2

In dB this becomes,
54
Loss
dB
= 32.44 + 20log
10
(d) + 20log
10
( f )
where:
d is the path distance in
km
f is the frequency in MHz
Calculation of Sample Path Loss Model
Ku band geosynchronous satellite:
f = 15,000 MHz
d = 42,000 km
Loss
dB
= 32.44 +
20 log
10
(40,000) +
20 log
10
(15,000) = 208 dB
Atmospheric losses must be added to this
55
Atmospheric Attenuation (Loss)
56
Microwave Attenuation [dB/km] vs Frequency [GHz], Wikipedia
O
2

53.5 -
65.2 GHz

H
2
O
22.2 GHz
H
2
O vs Dry Air Absorption (Loss)
57
Remedies for Path Loss
High gain antennas
High transmitter power
Low-noise receivers
Tracking of steered antennas
Modulation techniques
Error correcting codes
Frequency selection
Beam shaping to focus energy
58
Constraints Limiting Path Loss Remedies
Maximal antenna sizes push satellite radio
wavelengths below 2m.
Requirements for antenna gain, due to
communication path losses, reduce the
practical wavelengths to below 20cm.
(Diameter, d, of many wavelengths, )
Dish-Antenna Power Gain = (d/ )
2
(where is antenna efficiency)
59
Antenna Gain Calculation
Ku-Band antenna
Diameter 80 cm (d/ = 40), = 0.6
(about 40 wavelengths at 15GHz)
Power Gain = 0.6*(3.14*40)
2
= 15775
G
dB
= 10 log
10
[Power Gain ] = 40 dB

Note: Losses and sidelobe effects can reduce
this gain to 60% or less of its possible value.
60
Antenna Gain Efficiency Loss
From text, p115
d / = 5.6 (4GHz), = 0.35
Gain
dB
= 10 log
10
(d/ )
2
= 20.9 dB
From text, p116
d = 9m, = 0.075m (4GHz), = 0.6
Gain
dB
= 10 log
10

(d/ )
2
= 49.3 dB

Note: Smaller antenna has lower efficiency.
61
Beam Shaping through Antenna Design
Antenna radiation patterns (the beam) can be
shaped to redistribute the radiated energy, by
antenna design
Shaping radiation patterns can increase signal
strength in selected areas
Allows for more signal energy where higher
noise levels are expected
Allows energy to be conserved for areas of low
noise or low economic concern
62
Intelsat Galaxy-11 Example
Location: 91W
Power: Solar, 10.4 KW
Antennas:
C-Band: 2.4m
Ku-Band: 1.8m
Transponders:
24 channels C-Band: 20W each
24 channels Ku-Band: 75W (data)
16 channels Ku-Band: 140W (TV video)
63
Intelsat Galaxy-11 C-Band Coverage
64
Intelsat Galaxy-11 Ku-Band Coverage
65
Conclusions
Design constraints limit the power avaiable to
satellite communications equipment
Path losses limit communication capacity
High gain antennas can overcome some
limitations
Antenna patterns can be shaped to favor
desired locations on the earth
66
Questions?
67
Reminders
Check access to a math package
(Mathematica

or MATLAB

)
Do homework

Lect 01 2012 Raymond P. Jefferis III 68
End
Lect 01 2012 Raymond P. Jefferis III 69