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Low explosives
low combustion pressures react at velocities in the 500- to 1500-m/s range
Gunpowder is the most common example reaction rate depends on the grain size, temperature, degree of confinement, and packing density
High explosives
3000 to 9000 m/s and generate high pressures subdivided into primary high explosives (or initiator explosives) and secondary high explosives Primary high explosives
generally high-density compounds of metals and nitrogen detonate when subjected to a heat source purpose of primary explosives is to initiate the more powerful and less sensitive secondary high explosives
With the retrievable hollow carrier gun, the charges are positioned within a steel cylinder. Within the carrier, each charge is surrounded by air at surface pressure, and is aligned with a threaded port plug or a thinner portion of the carrier wall (scallop gun). Upon detonation, the jet pierces the plug, providing a positive indication of firing when the gun is retrieved. The carrier cylinder may expand slightly due to the explosive force, but most of the debris is recovered within the gun.
Steel hollow carrier guns: (a) threaded port plugs; (b) scallop gun).
Casing Guns
Both retrievable and expendable guns are used for conventional casing perforation operations. Retrievable hollow carrier guns normally range from 3 1/8 in. (7.9 cm) up to 5 in. (12.7 cm). Since larger guns generally carry larger charges, and larger charges generally achieve larger, longer perforations, the largest casing gun that can be run is ordinarily used.
Any shot density can be employed to minimize geometrical effects, with 4 shots per foot being a very common design. Perforating gun length is limited by the total perforating assembly length that must pass through the pressure control equipment at the surface.
The hollow steel carrier retrievable versions are preferred for deeper, higher-pressure wells. Because the perforating debris is minimized and retained within the carrier, retrievable guns are also preferred in situations where the well is to be flowed immediately after perforating, prior to gun retrieval. In such situations, semiexpendable carriers may become stuck as gun debris settles back to the bottom after a short flow period.
In addition, if the well is perforated underbalanced and through tubing, the pressure differential must not be so great that it causes the carrier and/ or cable to be blown up the tubing after firing.
This is because the steel carrier absorbs the energy of the explosion, as evidenced by carrier swelling. Expendable or semiexpendable guns can cause some degree of casing damage depending on the
amount of explosive casing thickness and grade wellbore hydrostatic pressure degree of casing support (cement sheath thickness and strength)
Together these parameters combine to create a distinctive flow geometry that creates a "skin" caused by the convergence of flow into the perforations. This skin is independent of permeability and can either enhance or impair performance relative to that of an openhole completion.
(Drilling and perforating damage--generally k1>k2>k3>k4) shows that there are permeability reductions due to drilling damage and the crushing of the formation due to the perforating process. The total "skin" represents the combined effect of all these conditions (geometry, drilling damage, perforating damage).
Gravel-pack completions are typically shot with large hole diameters (0.6 to 0.8 in. [15 to 20 mm]) and high densities (8 to 12 SPF [26 to 39 SPM]) In a typical 7- to 9 5/8-in. (178- to 244-mm) casing gravel-packed completion, either a 5-in. (127-mm) or 6-in (l52-mm) gun is used. The importance of maximizing perforation diameter when perforating for gravel packing rearranges the priority listing established for perforating a "natural completion."
As mentioned earlier, minimizing clearance is essential to maximizing penetration. In deviated holes, the effect of decentralized perforating (where the gun lies on the low side of the casing) on phased guns is to decrease the average perforation diameter. The alternative in these cases is to perforate using an oriented gun, which directs the perforations against the low side
Casing entrance hole size: The friction pressure loss across perforations may be expressed as
pf=0.2369 qt2
2 d4 C 2 /n o d
where pf=friction pressure in psi Cd=discharge coefficient (dimensionless) d=casing entrance-hole diameter, inches n=number of perforations o=liquid density, lbm/ft3 qt=total flow rate through perforations, bbl/min.
At a given flow rate, smaller-diameter perforations give a significantly higher friction pressure loss than do larger diameter perforations. A larger frictional pressure loss requires a larger bottomhole pressure to initiate a fracture. Therefore, smaller perforations maximize the pressure loss at lower pump rates, minimizing the hydraulic horsepower requirements (and thus the cost).
Effective shot density: Shot density requirements are based on maintaining reasonably low breakdown, treating and initial shut-in pressures. Typical treatments employ 4-8 shots per foot. Gun phasing: Regardless of perforation orientation, the far-field orientation of fractures depends entirely on formation stress charateristics. For typical fracture treatments, a phasing of 20o to 60o is recommended, while limited-entry treatments commonly use 0o shaped charge guns for placement of individually located perforations.
Character of perforations in the formation: Because fractures are generally initiated from the base of perforations, depth of penetration is not as important a parameter as it is in an unfractured completion. An intermediate penetration of about 4 to 6 inches is generally adequate