What is wind?

The uneven heating of the earths surface causes wind. Simply, wind can be defined as moving air. The winds energy has been used to do work throughout history from moving sailboats to

generating electricity. Today, wind is harnessed

primarily to generate electricity.

 At equator, a low pressure belt is created because of strong solar radiation. At the surface, this region is called doldrums. The air cools until it reaches latitudes of about 30degrees where it sinks back to the surface, creating a high pressure belt. Some are forced back towards low pressure zone (trade winds).

Global winds

generation of wind
The wind, for example the shoreline breeze, is the result of uneven heating of the earth by the sun. Sea Breezes, result of the seas ability to maintain temperature. Daytime land heats Sea is cool & .. Nighttime land cools faster than sea.

Merits
1. The primary energy (wind) is cost-free; 2. The primary energy is renewable and never runs out; 3.There is an abundant resource, nobody can cut access/supply. 4. Stable life-cycle-cost of its use can be guaranteed; 5. Wind power is competitive with other new power sources; 6. Operating wind turbines cause no carbon emissions, no air pollution and no hazardous waste; 7. No water for cooling is needed; 8.Wind has a short energy payback of energy invested, normally less than one year; 9. There is a global, easy access to wind technology, compared to nuclear and others; 10. Time to market is very short, erection of entire wind farms within one year possible;

11. The project is environment friendly. 12. Good wind potential to harness wind energy. 13. Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs are low. 14.No marketing risks, as the product is electrical energy.

Photo Courtesy Burbo Bank wind farm (Photo: Wind Power Works) UK

Limitations of Wind energy

Low energy density. Favorable winds are available only in few geographical location that is away from the cities and forests. Direction of wind changes it will never remain constant. Requires energy storage batteries or back up diesel power generator for constant availability of the power to load.

Cont
Solar can be directly converted in to heat while the wind energy can be converted in to mechanical and then into electrical. Wind farm locations are away from the cities that is power generation medium. Only in kW and MW range. Presently higher cost per MWh.

World Wind power total installed Capacity

Current Capacity OF RENEWABLE POWER IN INDIA

18,454.52MW 10.63% (Source: Electrical India)

Estimated Wind power Potential in world and INDIA

Sr. No. 1 2 3

States of India

Wind power generation in MW 5394 201 53

Sr. No. 17 18 19

States of India

Wind power generation in MW 5439 7 44

Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam

Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
16

Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Lakshadweep
Delhi

0 23 0 10609 0 20 5311 0 8591 790 920 16

0

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
32

Mizoram Nagaland Orrisa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttaranchal West Bengal Andaman & Nicobar
Others

0 3 910 0 5005 98 5374 0 137 161 22 2

0

New installations

Wind Speed Classification of The Beaufort Wind Scale

Wind turbine Parts

Parts
Anemometer: Measures the wind speed and

transmits wind speed data to the controller.

Blades: Most turbines have either two or three

blades. Wind blowing over the blades causes the

blades to "lift" and rotate. Brake: A disc brake which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically to stop the rotor in emergencies.

Parts
Wind vane: Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the turbine properly with respect to the wind. Yaw drive: Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive, the wind blows the rotor downwind. Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive.

Power and torque equations

P=Power developed by Wind turbine T=Torque produced by Wind turbine Cp=The power-coefficient =Air density=1.225 kg/m3 A=Area of wind turbine blades in m2 V=Velocity of Wind T=Output torque N.m = Tip Speed Ratio

Tip Speed Ratio ~6-7 ~5-6 ~2-3

Number of blades 2 3 5

Derivation of Power
The kinetic energy in air of mass m moving with speed V is given by the following in joules:

The power in moving air is the flow rate of kinetic energy per second in watts:

If P = mechanical power in the moving air (watts), = air density (kg/m3), A = area swept by the rotor blades (m2), and V = velocity of the air (m/sec).

 The relation of mass, the volumetric flow rate is AV and density has a unique relation; m= AV the mechanical power coming in the upstream wind is given by the following in watts:

Derivation of Power AN INITIAL EFFICIENCY (BETZ LIMIT)

The Energy Extracting Streamtube of a Wind Turbine

WHAT IS OUR GOAL????

The maximum efficiency can be extract from the wind. So we can categorized the entire scenario in three cases: Case I: no wind no power and max wind max power Case II: V passing through wind w/o hindrance or thrust at that time. V=v=V=V2 So how much power has been extracted???

 Case III: suppose the surface consists of very large power extraction like a wall so that V stopped over here. So power extracted is again???? So in between this some value is there from that maximum power can be extracted. Logically this phenomenon is called Axial Interference Factor. a so if a=0 no interference and a=1 complete blockage. So lets define v in terms of a and V. Try it????

Defining a
So if defining a with different velocities; v = V (1-a) Similarly putting value of v; 1 V (1 a ) (V V2 ) 2 V2 V (1 2a ) So power extracted is dropping of energy.

In form of power
P P P P 1 2 Av * v 2 1 2 2 Av(V V2 ) 2 1 2 2 2 AV (1 a )(V V (1 2a ) ) 2 1 3 AV (1 a )(1 (1 2a ) 2 ) 2

Simplify and Differentiate wrt a

 Putting a = 1/3,
1 3 16 P Av [ ] 2 27

Power contained in wind ultimate maximum efficiency

BETZ LIMIT FOR WT

No wind turbine could convert more than 59.2% of the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy turning a rotor.

Terms related to wind energy

Cut-in wind speed: the speed at which the wind turbine starts to operate. Cut-out wind speed: is the wind speed where the wind turbine stops production and turns out of the main wind direction. Tip Speed Ratio: TSR is the speed of the blade at its tip divided by the speed of the wind. The design wind speed: when the windmill reaches its maximum efficiency. The rated wind speed: when the machine reaches its maximum output power.

Tip Speed Ratio (TSR)

By definition, TSR is the speed of the blade at its tip divided by the speed of the wind. For example, if the tip of a blade is traveling at 100 mph (161 kph) and the wind speed is 20 mph (32 kph or 9 m/s), then the TSR is 5 (100 mph/20 mph). Simply put, the tip of the blade is traveling five times faster than the speed of the wind.

Importance of TSR
If the rotor of the wind turbine spins too slowly, most of the wind will pass straight through the gap between the blades, therefore giving it no power! But if the rotor spins too fast, the blades will blur (make or become less distinct) and act like a solid wall to the wind.

How Do You Know The Perfect Tip Speed Ratio???

The optimum Tip Speed Ratio for maximum power output, this formula has been empirically proven: (max power) = 4 / n where n (n = number of blades)

Wind Turbine Blade Aerodynamics:

Wind turbine blades are shaped to generate the maximum power from the wind at the minimum cost. Primarily the design is driven by the aerodynamic requirements, but economics mean that the blade shape is a compromise to keep the cost of construction reasonable. In particular, the blade tends to be thicker than the aerodynamic optimum close to the root, where the stresses due to bending are greatest.

No of Blades:
The limitation on the available power in the wind means that the more blades there are, the less power each can extract. Narrow blade gives maximum aerodynamic efficiency Minimum solidity In practice the optimum solidity is low (only a few percent) which means that even with only three blades, each one must be very narrow

How blades capture wind power

Effect of angle of attack

Apparent wind angles

Twist of wind turbine blades

Typically the twist is around 0-20 from root to tip.

Rotational speed of Turbine wheel

Depends on Tip-Speed ratio

Power coefficient vs Tip speed ratio

Draw an involute of a circular arc which subtends an angle of 90o at the centre of the circle of diameter 120 mm.

Pitch Control & YAW CONTROL

Blade pitch control is the system which monitors and adjusts the inclination angle of the blades and thus control the rotation speed of the blades. Lower wind speeds the pitching system leads to an acceleration of the hub rotation speed and at higher speeds blade pitch control reduces the wind load on the blades and structure of turbine. Over a certain wind speed the blade pitch control starts to rotate blades out of the wind, there by slowing and stopping the blade to avoid the complete damage. The wind turbine yaw mechanism is used to turn the wind turbine rotor against the wind. The wind turbine is said to have a yaw error, if the rotor is not perpendicular to the wind.

Classifications

According to size
Size in terms of determine the useful output power: Small Scale (Up to 2kW) Medium size Machines (2-100kW) Large size (100kW and up)

 Wind turbines are classified into two general types: horizontal axis and vertical axis. A horizontal axis machine has its blades rotating on an axis parallel to the ground. A vertical axis machine has its blades rotating on an axis perpendicular to the ground. There are a number of available designs for both and each type has certain advantages and disadvantages. However, compared with the horizontal axis type, very few vertical axis machines are available commercially.

General types
HAWT:
The propeller-type rotor is mounted on a horizontal axis. The rotor needs to be positioned into the wind direction by means of a tail or active yawing by a yaw motor. HAWTs are sensitive to the changes in wind direction and turbulence which have a negative effect on performance due to the required repositioning of the turbine into the wind flow. The best locations for HAWTs are open areas with smooth air flow and few obstacles.

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)

Advantages: Higher efficiency due to variable blade pitch. Consistent wind loading over the course of a rotation reduces vibration and noise. Established manufacturing know-how and market acceptability.

Disadvantages
Increased costs of transporting tall towers and long blades. Installation requires very tall and expensive cranes and skilled operators. Massive tower and heavy foundation to support blades, gearbox, and generator. Complex design of twisted blades is difficult and expensive to fabricate. Large size may disrupt the landscape and create local opposition. Requires yaw control to turn the blades and nacelle toward the wind. Difficult, expensive, and frequent maintenance required.

Horizontal axis using two aerodynamic blades

Rotor drives generator to step up gear box. Rotor is usually designed for downwind of the tower. The rotor blades are continuously flexed by unsteady aerodynamics, gravitational and inertia loads. Tail vane is required for balancing the force.

Horizontal axis propeller type with single blade

A blade is mounted on rigid hub. Induction generator and gear box are shown. To reduce the rotor cost use of low cost counter weight is recommended which balance the long blade centrifugally.

 One blade rotating very fast can essentially extract as much energy from the wind as many blades rotating slowly. A wind turbine with one blade would save on material; however, a counter weight is needed for balance.

Horizontal axis multi bladed type

These type of design is made of sheet of metal or aluminum. The rotors have high strength to weight ratios. They have higher starting torque and good power coefficient.

 VAWT Vertical axis wind turbines VAWTs are typically developed only for the urban deployment. Changes in wind direction have fewer negative effects on this type of turbine because it does not need to be positioned into the wind direction. However, the overall efficiency of these turbines in producing electricity is lower than HAWTs.

Shape v/s drag co-efficient

Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) Smaller tower structure, since lower bearings are mounted near
the ground. The generator and gearbox are installed near the ground. Suitable for low speed winds, due to lower wind start up speed. May be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited. Can take advantage of locations where landscape increases wind speed near the ground. May have a lower noise signature. Needs less space than HAWT to generate the same amount of power. Straight blades are much easier and economical to fabricate or extrude. Lower overall maintenance and transportation costs.

Disadvantages
Lower aerodynamic efficiency compared to HAWT. Blade fatigue failure due to change in stress sign during each revolution. May require dismantling the entire structure to fix the generator or gearbox.

HAWT v/s VAWT

Most wind turbines built at present have a horizontal axis. The vertical axis Darrieus machine has several advantages. First of all, it is omnidirectional and requires no yaw mechanism to continuously orient itself toward the wind direction. Secondly, its vertical drive shaft simplifies the installation of the gearbox and the electrical generator on the ground, making the structure much simpler. On the negative side, it normally requires guy wires attached to the top for support.

 This could limit its applications, particularly for the offshore sites. Overall, the vertical axis machine has not been widely used because its output power cannot be easily controlled in high winds simply by changing the blade pitch. With modern low-cost, variable-speed power electronics emerging in the wind power industry, the Darrieus configuration may revive, particularly for large capacity applications.

 HAWTSuitable for both small and large systems and most commercial wind turbines are HAWT. Advantages: High wind speed at a greater height, High efficiency Disadvantages: Complex system, High installation cost for large systems (Generator and gearbox installed on top of tower) (control ckts, panels etc) VAWT Suitable for small systems Advantages: Gearbox and generator can be placed on the ground; Do not need a yaw system to turn the rotor against wind Disadvantages: Wind speed is low near the ground, Low efficiency; May need guy wires to hold the turbine, and difficult maintenance.

Savonius rotor
The Savonius wind turbine, invented by S.J. Savonius, is a vertical axis machine consisting of two half cylindrical (or elliptical) blades arranged in S shape. Convex side of

one of the half cylinder and the concave side of the other
are facing the wind at a time. The drag coefficient of a concave surface is more than the convex surface.

 Being drag machines, Savonius rotors have relatively

lower power coefficient. However, some experimental rotors have shown power coefficient up to 35 percent. These rotors have high solidity and thus high starting torque.

They work at low tip speed ratios, with the maximum of

about 1. They are very simple in construction-even can be made from oil barrels cut in two halves lengthwise. Hence they are preferred for high torque-low speed applications like water pumping.

Characteristics
Self starting Low speed Low efficiency

Advantages
As it is vertical axis it direction of the wind doesnt matter. Machine performs on the low wind speeds too. Low cut in speed and produce power effectively in wind as slow as 8 km/hr. Cost of the wind turbine is lower compared to standard wind turbine. Simple structure and hence easy to manufacture. Yaw and pitch control are not needed to bring into the wind or operate at high speeds. Ground level mounting Overall weight of the turbine.

Disadvantages
This type of machine is too solid having so much metal or other material surface compared with the amount of wind intercepted. Weight is excessive. It is not useful for a very tall installation because a long drive shaft problems and also bracing of the topmost bearing above the rotor of very tall vawt is awkward.

Darrieus type rotor / wind machine

Darrieus type rotor / wind machine

The term Darrieus describes a class of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT) that is powered by the phenomenon of lift. This class consists of two types of turbines, eggbeater-type. This lift is created because of the airfoil shape of the turbines blades. These blades cut through the air with an angle of attack to the wind causing a pressure differential. The resulting pressure differentials cause a force called lift, which propels the blade forward.

 The Darrieus has several attractive features. One is that the machine rotates about a vertical axis, hence does not need to be turned into the wind. Another is that the blades take the shape of a jumping rope experiencing high centrifugal forces. This shape is called troposkein, from the Greek for turning rope. Since the blade operates in almost pure tension, a relatively light, inexpensive blade is sufficient.

 Another advantage is that the power train, generator, and controls are all located near ground level, hence are easier to construct and maintain. The efficiency is nearly as good as that of the horizontal axis propeller turbine, so the Darrieus holds considerable promise as a cost effective turbine.

 One disadvantage of the Darrieus is that it is not normally self starting. That is, if the turbine has stopped during a period of low wind speeds, it will not usually start when the wind speed increases. Starting is usually accomplished by an induction motor connected to the local utility network. Not the disadvantage once it is started it works as induction generator.

 Darrious rotors are lift devices and characterized by the curve of the airfoil cross sections. Characteristics: Not self starting High speed High efficiency Potentially low capital cost

Site Selection
Understand Your Wind Resource Wind speed Optimum power generation High annual average wind speed survey of historical data contour maps of terrain and wind are consulted potential sites are visited best sites are instrumented for approx 1 year choose optimal site.