RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

by

K. Narasimhan
Regional Advisor (India)
The Emerald Group Publishing Ltd, UK
 Aim of the Session

• To prepare participants to undertake dissertation

or project

• To inform them of issues involved in 4-Ds of

research projects
• Define,
• Design
• Do
• Describe
 RM: Outcomes of the session

On successful completion of this module participants

will be able to demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of:

• the process of creating and disseminating

knowledge

• how and where such knowledge is published

 Defining your Research

Key Challenges:

– Understanding the research process

– Taking a systematic approach

– Generating and clarifying ideas

– Using the library and internet.

 Assessing prior knowledge of
participants
• Why Conduct Research?

• What is Research?

• What are the two main approaches?

• Participants’ experience in writing research

proposals

• Are conceptual models/frameworks important?

 Why Conduct Research?
– To complete an assigned task
– To improve
– understanding of the problem
– our competence in doing research
– the ability to manage research
– on others’ research

– To increase credibility of ones work

– To discover new things/ test ideas
– To Make sense of world around us.
 What is Research? (1)

Definition of Research for RAE 2008

"...original investigation undertaken in order

to gain knowledge and understanding."

Queen's University Belfast (2007),

 What Research is Not?

It is Not

– Mere information gathering

– Mere transportation of facts from one location

to another

– Merely rummaging for information

– A catchword to get attention

Leedy and Ormrod (2005, p.2)
 A Research’s Distinct Characteristics
• Research originates with a question or problem.

• It is guided by the specific problem/hypothesis.

• It requires clear articulation of a goal/sub-goals.

• It requires a specific plan for proceeding.

• It accepts certain critical assumptions.

• It requires collection and interpretation of data.

• It is helical.
 Types of Research

Basic Commercial

Scholarly Student

Interest-driven Assigned

Primary Secondary

Individual Group

Single discipline Interdisciplinary

 Key Stakeholders

• Co-researchers (if applicable)

• Supervisors

• Examiners

• Sponsors (if applicable)

• Others (?)
 Research Methodology Hierarchy

Approach

Philosophy

Perspective

Methodology

Design

Methods

Tools and Techniques

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Adopted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005), p. 155

Research Approaches

Ontology Epistemology

Positivism Derived from philosophy

of science.
Objectivist Realism

Critical realism

Interpretivism

Subjectivist Constructionism

Subjectivism Derived from philosophy

of social science.
 Comparison of Two Broad Approaches
Characteristics Quantitative Qualitative

Philosophy Science Social science

Perspective Positivism … Subjectivism ..

Underlying World is real & World is complex
assumptions knowable Knowable only through
We can be objective interaction with the social
system that it contains
Phenomena can be
reduced to numbers
To explain and predict To describe and explain
Objectives
To confirm and validate To explore and interpret
To find patterns to test To understand meaning
theory to generate theory
 Comparison of Two Broad Approaches
Characteristics Quantitative Qualitative

Nature of the Focussed Holistic

research Known variables Unknown variables
process
Established guidelines Flexible guidelines
Pre-determined methods Emergent methods
Somewhat context-free Context-bound
Detached view Personal view
Questions What and how Why, how
Starting point Theory-led Data-led
Data analysis Through rules Through intuition
Quality issue Validity, reliability… Neutrality and
transparency
 The SA Research Process

Identify Topic
Define

Literature
Conceptual
Review
Framework Questions

Data collection & analysis & report

Design

Project
Pilot study
report
Finalise Data collection and analysis

Revise Collect data

Do

Framework
Analyse data

Interpret results
Describe

Report findings
 A Qualitative Research Process
Identify Topic
Define

Conceptual Literature
Framework Questions Review
(CF)

Collect data
Design

Literature
Analyse data Review

Do
Revise Interpret data
CF
Questions answered Interim findings

Describe
or out of time

Design Report

Slides 15 and 16 adopted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005), p. 149

 Managing the Research Process

Choose a topic: unanswered

Get work published. question & plan.
6 1

Form arguments, Write a critical

5 2
identify limitations and literature review
ideas for further
research. Write up the
dissertation.
3
4
Gather evidence, analyse, Develop concepts,
interpret findings, and draw framework and theories,
inferences. form research hypotheses,
& design studies
 Structure of a Research proposal
• Statement of problem
• Research questions
– Sub-objectives

• Research approach
• Methodology
– Measures
– Data analysis approach
– Samples

• Schedule and budget

 Statement of Problem

• Choose or identify Problem

• State the problem & Divide it into sub-problems

• State the hypotheses and limitations of the

research

• State assumptions & why the study is important.

• Define key terms and jargons

 Benefits of Writing Literature Review
• Answers if the field is worth studying.

• Can offer new ideas, etc and provides useful

contacts.

• Shows how others have handled similar issues

and dealt with potential difficulties.

• Can reveal sources of data, and tools

effectively used.

• Helps link our findings to those of previous

studies’.
 Conducting a Literature Search

• Write clearly the problem and sub-problems

• Identify key terms from them

• Specify topics that need to be studied further

• Identify articles, books, websites, etc for reading

• Keep track and record of searches undertaken

and all basic/important information
 Ex1: Evaluating Research Articles
• Was the article published in a refereed journal?
• Are the objectives clearly stated?
• Is it primary research or secondary research?
• Is its structure logical?
• Is the problem chosen based on previous work?
• Can the method used be repeated by others?
• Is the method of data collection sound?
• Do you agree with the inferences drawn?
• What are its strength & weaknesses?
 Writing a Critical Review (1)
Read Interactively and
for depth
Rely on
paraphrasing
Write Digest
Summarise the
article

Look for arguments &

counter arguments Establish linkages
Evaluate Understand

Adapted from Pechenik, Jan. (1993).Cited in Hillsborough Community College

(no date),
 Writing a Critical Review (2)
• Provide an overview of the chosen literature

• Use a “funnel” approach:

– Start with broad scope of the field and present an

argument for narrowing the field to specific topic

• Identify the gaps in existing research and explain

how the research to be undertaken will fill the
void.

• Provide a critical account: emphasise relatedness;

don’t just reproduce
 Writing a Critical Review (3)
• Cite the major experts in the filed
• Cite the most recent and important literature
• Cite works that take a different viewpoint
• Give credit where it is due (do not plagiarise)
• Evaluate other’s work objectively
• Explain and justify the use of the chosen
theories, concepts, frameworks, techniques, etc.
• Include a conceptual model showing all relevant
variables/constructs and their relationships
 Guidelines for Reviewing an Article
• Identify the main points and ‘inference indicators’

• Assess the context of the argument

• Identify the premises for conclusions

• Check if the premises are supported by sound

evidence (reliable citations)

• Are the conclusions strong and logically based?

• Could counter conclusions be drawn?

Adapted from Fisher (2004, p. 77)

 General Guidelines for Writing Reviews
• Be clear about the goal
• Draw a plan: moving from general to specific
• Emphasise relatedness
• Summarise what does it all mean
• Remember first draft is not the final draft
• Critically read your draft after a few days
• Seek advise and feedback

Adapted from Leedy and Ormrod (2005, pp. 79-80)

 Conceptual Frameworks (1)

• Concepts are key terms used in the research.

• Frameworks illustrate the connections and

relationships amongst the concepts.

• CFs provide a ‘map’ for the filed of study

• CFs Provide structure and coherence

 Conceptual Frameworks (2)
Types of Relationships
• Cause and effect (Expectancy Model)

• Cyclical or stages in a process (Kolb’s)

• Hierarchical (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs)

• Matrices (BCG Matrix)

• Pairs of opposites (Force-Field Analysis)

• Exchange and equilibrium (Balanced Scorecard)

• Similarity (McKinsey’s ‘7 S’ Model)

 Quantitative Research Designs
• Descriptive Research

– Observation studies

– Correlational research

– Developmental designs

– Survey research

– Interviews: face-to-face, telephone, voicemail

• Experimental and Ex post-facto designs

 Observation Studies
Purpose : Quantify behaviour in an objective way.

Focus : A particular aspect of behaviour.

Data used: Recorded observations by researchers.

Methods of
Analysis : Statistical analysis
 Correlational Studies
Purpose : Assess relationship between variables

Focus : Ratings assigned or frequencies of

behaviour

Data used : Numbers reflecting specific measurements

of characteristics being studied.

Methods of
Analysis : Regression analysis
 Developmental Designs
Purpose : Assess how variables change over time
Focus : Ratings assigned or frequencies of
behaviour

Data used : Numbers reflecting specific measurements

of characteristics being studied.

Methods of
Analysis : Cross-sectional or Longitudinal study
 Survey Research

Purpose : To learn about a large population by

acquiring information of its sample.

Focus : Ratings assigned or frequencies of

behaviour, opinions, attitudes, experiences

Data used : Self-report data of specific measurements

of characteristics being studied, using
interviews and/or questionnaires.

Methods of
Analysis : Statistical analysis
Experimental and Ex Post-facto Designs

Purpose : To identify possible cause and effect

relationships /eliminate some alternative
explanations for an observed change

Focus : Independent, dependent, and extraneous

variables

Data used : Measurements of characteristics being

studied,
Methods of
Analysis : Statistical analysis
 Qualitative Research Designs
To get a complete understanding of the problem
under study methods employed are:
– Case study
– Ethnography

– Phenomenological study

– Grounded theory study

– Content analysis
– Historical research
 Case Study

Purpose : To gain an in-depth understanding of a

person/situation (dept, organisation)

Focus : Case(s) in the natural setting.

Data used : Participant observations, interviews,
written documents, audio visual material

Methods of
Analysis : Clustering into meaningful groups and
interpreting based on themes;
overall synthesis and generalisation
 Ethnography

Purpose : To understanding how behaviours reflect

group cultural norms, beliefs, etc

Focus : A site with a common culture.

Data used : Participant observations, interviews,
written documents

Methods of
Analysis : Organising in a chronological order
Clustering into meaningful groups
Focussing on critical events
Inferring general nature of culture
 Phenomenological study

Purpose : Understand people’s perceptions,

perspectives and understandings

Focus : A particular phenomena

Data used : Lengthy unstructured interviews with

selected participants
Cues from participants’ expressions, etc.

Methods of
Analysis : Identifying common themes;
Grouping them into meaningful experiences
 Grounded Theory Study
Purpose : To derive a theory from data collected in a
natural setting
Focus : A Process of actions and interactions
related to a topic: people based
Data used : Observations, interviews,
written documents,
audio visual material
Methods of
Analysis : Systematically coding data into
categories and identifying relationships
Continual interweaving of data collection
and data analysis
Constructing theory from categories &
interrelationships
 Content analysis

Purpose : To identify patterns, themes, or biases

Focus : Any form of communication (verbal, visual or
behavioural)

Data used : material from books, newspapers, films,

videotapes of human interactions, etc.

Methods of
Analysis : Tabulation of frequency of each characteristic
Statistical analysis to answer questions
 EX2: Group Exercise – Part 1
Objective: To study the teaching style of
academics

3. Find a partner. Decide who will be the

Researcher.
4. The researcher now has 10 minutes to find
out and record information about the
interviewee’s teaching style whilst at the
institution
5. Swap roles and repeat step 2.
 Group Exercise – Part 2

• Merge with at least 2 other groups (you will

need at least 3 sets of data per group)
• Reduce your data (What categories have you
formed and why? How have you organised
your data chunks and why?)
• Analyse your data (e.g. What patterns have
been identified? What issues have been
identified?)
• Identify key discussion themes.
 The Sampling Process

• Define the target population.

• Choose the sampling frame.

• Select the sampling method.

• Determine the ample size.

• Implement the sampling plan.

Hair, Jr., J. F., et al. (2007, p. 171),

 Sampling Designs
• Theoretical
sampling: Data sources for developing a theory

• Discriminant
sampling: Data sources useful for validating
theory
• Probability
sampling: Choosing a sample in such a way that
each member has an equal chance of
being selected

• Non-Probability
sampling: No way of forecasting or guaranteeing
that each element of the population will
be represented in the sample
 Probability Sampling

• Simple random selection

• Simple Stratified random sampling

• Proportional Stratified random sampling

• Cluster sampling

• Systematic sampling (e.g. Picking every 10th

customer)
 Non-Probability Sampling
• Convenience sampling: Sample based on what/
who is available

• Quota sampling: Sample based on what/who is

available but maintaining
population’s proportions

• Purposive sampling: Sample chosen for the

research purpose

• Snowball sampling: Initial respondents are used to

help identify other respondents

NOTE: Always explain why a certain sampling method

was chosen.
 Bias in Research

Bias is anything that distorts data, and thus attacks

the integrity of facts. (Leedy and Ormrod, 2005)

Sources of Bias:
– Sponsoring organisation
– Researcher
– Sampling
– Non-respondents to a survey
– Surveyor or interviewer
– Gathering of data
– Analysis and presentation of data
 Researchers’ Ethical Obligations

• Maintain scientific rigour

• Keep findings confidential (if required)

• Do not ‘massage’ findings

• Present findings clearly

• Admit limitations
 Questionnaire Design: points to watch
• Attractive design
• Keep it short and simple (KISS)
• Logical and sequential: easy questions first
• Clear instructions and questions
• Watch out for implicit assumptions
• Avoid leading questions
• Decide how to code responses for analysis
• Ask personal questions at the end
 Questionnaire Design:
• Closed-ended questions
– Dichotomous
– Multiple choice/Check lists
– Ranking questions
– Rating scales: verbal, numerical and (Behaviourally
anchored)
– Likert scale (measures the amount of agreement)
– Semantic differential scales
• Open-ended questions
– Unstructured
– Word association
– Sentence completion
 Rating Scales Exercise
Give a numerical value between 1 and 10 (where
10 = greatest frequency) to indicate the
frequency suggested by the following words.

– Almost always - Quite often

– Always - Rarely
– Frequently - Seldom
– Most of the time - Sometimes
– Never - Often
– Occasionally - Usually
Adapted from Fisher (1999, p. 164)
 Maximising Returns of Mailed
Questionnaires
• Timing of the mail-shot

• Ensure good first impression.

• Say why the survey should interest the

respondent.

• Include self-addressed & stamped envelop.

• Offer the results/summary of the study.

• Send follow up reminders.

 Pilot Survey Purposes
• Testing questionnaire
• wording
• sequencing
• layout
• Testing
• sensitivity of respondents
• fieldwork arrangements
• analysis procedures
• Estimating
• response rates
• completion times
• Training and testing field workers
 Assessing Practicability of Projects (1)
• In what area is the problem?
• Are data easily accessible?
• What expertise does the researcher have?
• How will data be collected?
• Are special equipments or conditions required
for gathering and analysing data?
• What is the estimated time and cost?
• Will the data collected be valid and reliable?
 Assessing Practicability of Projects (2)

• Have the following criteria been built into the

project ?
– Universality

– Repeatability

– Measurement

– Control or isolating
 Common Weaknesses in Proposals (1)
Not able to demonstrate the ability to:
– Think clearly and logically

– To express concisely and cogently

– To discriminate between the significant and

inconsequential
– To display technical ability

– To handle abstract thought

– To analyse data objectively and accurately

– To interpret results confidently and conservatively

Leedy and Ormrod (2005, pp. 126-7)
 Common Weaknesses in Proposals (2)
• Related to Research Problem
– Unclear, unfocussed, unsound,

– more complex, limited relevance, unimportant

• Research Design and Methodology

– Vague and unfocussed,

– inappropriate data, equipments, methods/ controls,

– unlikely to yield accurate results.

Leedy and Ormrod (2005, p. 127)
 Common Weaknesses in Proposals (3)

• Related to the Researcher

– Insufficient training/experience,
– Unfamiliar with the relevant literature
– Insufficient time to devote to the research

• Related to Resources
– Unfavourable institutional setting
– Insufficient equipment and support staff
 Evaluating a Research Proposal
• Is the research project worth it?
– Does it contribute to knowledge?
– Has an expert’s view been obtained?
– What is good about it?
– What are the drawbacks?
• What procedure will be adopted for:
– Literature review, data collection and analysis, and
interpretation
• Are the necessary research tools available?
• What do peers think about the proposal?
 Conclusions

I would much appreciate it, if one of you or

some of you combined would summarise
what has been learnt in this session.

Thank you all for giving me this opportunity to

present my thoughts. If you want further
information do get in touch with me.
 References/Bibliography
Cambridge Theological Federation , AG430022 (A422) - Postgraduate Research Methods (MA)
http://www.theofed.cam.ac.uk/ma_modules/AG430022.html
Fisher, C. (2004), Researching and Writing Dissertation for Business Students, Harlow: Pearson
Prentice Hall
Hair, Jr., J. F., et al. (2007), Research Methods for Business, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley
Hammersley, M. and Gomm, R.(1997) 'Bias in Social Research‘, Sociological Research Online, vol.
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Leedy, P. D., and Ormrod, J. E. (2005), Practical Research Planning and Design, 8th Ed., New
Jersey: Pearson Merril Prentice Hall
Lesser, L. I., et al. (2007) Relationship between Funding Source and Conclusion among Nutrition-
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found at http://www.vetmed.lib.umn.edu/news/funding/bias, accessed on 19/05/07
Maylor, H., and Blackmon, K. (2005), Researching Business and Management, Basingstoke:
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Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall Europe
Pechenik, Jan. (1993). A Short Guide to Writing About Biology, 2nd ed. New York: Harper Collins
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http://www.hccfl.edu/adjunct/darren_smith/bbs-gwcr.htm accessed on 5/05/07
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http://www.qub.ac.uk/home/Research/ResearchPolicyOffice/RAE2008/PUBLIC/ExternalRAEdocumentati
accessed on 04/05/07