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Chapter 6
Chapter Overview
1. 2. 3. Functions A. Classification B. Structure C. Bone types Bone tissue
A. B. Bone matrix Bone cells Compact Spongy
4.
Bone Structure
A. B.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Periosteum & Endosteum Bone Formation and Growth Exercise, Hormones, and Nutrition Calcium Homeostasis Fractures Osteopenia
5 Primary Functions:
Support Storage of minerals (calcium) & lipids (yellow marrow)
Flat bones
Thin with parallel surfaces Found in the skull, sternum, ribs, scapulae
Long bones
Long and thin Found in arms, legs, hands, feet, fingers, toes
Sutural bones
c
Small, irregular bones Found between the flat bones of the skull
Irregular bones
Have complex shapes Examples: spinal vertebrae, pelvic bones
Short bones
c c
Sesamoid bones
Small and flat Develop inside tendons near joints of knees, hands, feet
Bone Markings
Depressions or grooves
Along bone surface
Projections or elevations
Where tendons and ligaments attach
At articulations with other bones
Tunnels
Where blood and nerves enter bone
Metaphysis
Where diaphysis & epiphysis meet
Compact Bone
Spongy Bone
Contains specialized cells & matrix Matrix- extracellular protein fibers & ground substance
Solid matrix- calcium salt deposits around collagen fibers
Matrix Proteins
1/3 bone matrix- protein fibers (collagen)
*You do not need to memorize the molecular formula of the minerals
Bone Matrix
Strong as steel reinforced concrete! Calcium phosphate- hard, withstand compression, but not bending/twisting Collagen fibers- flexible, withstand bending/twisting, little resistance to compression Together- strong, somewhat flexible, shatter resistance bone
Canaliculi Form pathways for blood vessels Exchange nutrients and wastes
builders
most abundant
Osteocytes
Mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix Each osteocyte occupies a lacuna
Lacunae- pocket between layers of matrix (lamellae)
Osteocytes Functions
To maintain protein and mineral content of matrix
Bones are dynamic- constantly changing! Break down matrix & build it back again
2. Elevate local concentrations of calcium phosphate above solubility limit, triggers deposition of calcium salts
Converts osetoid to bone
Stem cells
Osteoprogenitor Cells
Mesenchymal stem cells that divide to produce
osteoblasts Are located in endosteum, the inner, cellular layer of periosteum Assist in fracture repair
Osteoclasts
Giant, multinucleate cells remove & recycle bone matrix
Derived from stem cells that produce macrophages
Secrete acids & protein-digesting enzymes dissolve bone matrix & release stored minerals (osteolysis)
Important in maintaining calcium and phosphate concentrations in body fluids
Maintaining Bone
Homeostasis: building = breakdown
Bone building (osteoblasts) and bone recycling (osteoclasts) must balance
More breakdown than building, bones become weak
Osteocytes are arranged in concentric lamellae around a central canal containing blood vessels
Run parallel to bone surgafe Perforating Canals- run perpendicular to central canal
Canals of Volkmann Carry blood vessels into deep bone and marrow
Circumferential Lamellae
Lamellae on outter/inner bone surface, covered by periosteum & endosteum respectively Produced during growth of bone
5. c
Periosteum- superficial layer of compact bone (except joint cavities)
2 layers- outer fibrous layer, inner cellular layer
Functions Isolates bone from surrounding tissues Provides route for circulatory and nervous supply Participates in bone growth and repair
Joints- periosteum becomes continuous with connective tissues (joint capsule, tendons, ligaments)
Perforating fibers- collagen fibers of the periosteum
The Periosteum
The Endosteum
Ossification
Two main forms of ossification
Endochondral ossification- bone replaces cartilage
Most bones originate as hyaline cartilage
Intramembranous ossification- bone develops directly from mesenchyme or fibrous connective tissue
Dermal ossification- occurs in dermis Produces dermal bones- mandible (lower jaw) and clavicle (collarbone)
Endochondral Ossification
-cartilage enlarges -chondrocytes increase in size
-lacunae expand
-matrix reduces to thin struts that begin to calcify -chondrocytes deprived of nutrientsno diffusion
-blood vessels grow into perichondrium -inner layer cells differentiate into osteoblasts, -osteoblasts begin producing thin layer of bone -
Endochondral Ossification
-blood vessels penetrate cartilage, central region -fibroblasts migrate in, differentiate into osteoblasts -osteoblasts produce spongy bone (primary ossification center) -bone formation spreads along shaft
Endochondral Ossification
-centers of epiphyses begin to calcify -epiphyses become filled with spongy bone -articular cartilage remains exposed at joint cavity -overtime reduces to thin superficial layer
Epiphyseal Lines
When long bone stops growing, after puberty epiphyseal cartilage disappears
Appositional Growth
In early endochondral ossification, a superficial layer of bone forms, then bone increase in diameter (outer surface) Appositional Growth
Cells of inner layer of periosteum differentiate into osetoblasts, deposit superficial layers of bone matrix Osteoblasts become surrounded by matrix- differentiate into osteocytes Add series of layers form circumferential lamellae
Intramembranous Ossification
-mesenchymal cells cluster together and start secreting organic components of matrix -resulting osteoid becomes mineralized as mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts -developing bone grow outward from ossification center (where ossification begins) in spicules -ossification trap osteoblasts, differentiate into osteocyte
Intramembranous Ossification
-Blood vessels grow into the area -Spicules grow and fuse together, trap blood vessels within developing bone
Intramembranous Ossification
-Initially, intrmebraneous bone only spongy bone
-Remodeling produce osteons of compact bone -Growth slows, periosteum forms
-connetive tissue forms fibrous outer layer -osteoblasts outer surface become inner cellular layer
Metaphyseal vessels:
Supply blood to the epiphyseal cartilage where bone growth occurs
6. Bone Remodeling
Adult skeleton very dynamic- continually remodels,
recycles, and replaces
Replaces mineral reserves Recycles and renews bone matrix Involves osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts
Turnover rate varies
If deposition is greater than removal, bones get stronger If removal is faster than replacement, bones get weaker
Bone Degeneration
Bone degenerates quickly Up to one third of bone mass can be lost in a few weeks of inactivity
Break leg, astronaut, paralyzed
Vitamin C- required for collagen synthesis, and stimulation of osteoblast differentiation Vitamin A- stimulates osteoblast activity Vitamins K and B12 help synthesize bone proteins Calcitonin & parathyroid hormone regulate calcium & phosphate levels
8. Calcium Homeostasis
Skeleton act as a calcium reserve
Bones store calcium and other minerals Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body Calcium ions are vital to:
Membranes & intracellular activities of neurons & muscle cells, especially heart cells
Too much calcium muscle & nerve cells unresponsive Not enough calcium- neurons so excitable, convulsions 50% reduction of calcium lead to death!
Calcium Homeostasis
Calcium tightly regulated in body Calcitonin and parathyroid hormone
Control storage, absorption, and excretion Calcitonin- thyroid gland Parathyroid hormone- parathyroid gland
Target
Bones- storage Digestive tract- absorption Kidneys- excretion
Calcium Homeostasis
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Produced by parathyroid glands in neck Increases calcium ion levels by
Stimulating osteoclasts, enhancing recycling of minerals by osteocytes Increasing intestinal absorption of calcium Decreasing calcium excretion at kidneys
Calcitonin
Secreted by C cells (parafollicular cells) in thyroid Decreases calcium ion levels by
Inhibiting osteoclast activity Increasing calcium excretion at kidneys
9. Fractures
Cracks or breaks in bones caused by physical stress Major types of fractures:
Pott fracture- ankle, affects both bones
Comminuted fractures- shattered Transverse fractures- break across access
-Extensive bleeding, large blood clot (fracture hematoma) closes off injured vessels -Establishes a fibrous network -Bone cells in the area die
-Cells of periosteum & endosteum rapid division & migrate in -External callus forms, stabalizes outer edges -Internal callus forms in medullary cavity
-Osteoblasts replace central cartilage of external callus with spongy bone -Struts of spongy bone unite broken ends -Fragments of dead bone removed & replaced
10. Osteopenia
Bones become thinner and weaker with age Osteopenia- inadequate ossification
Begins between ages 30 and 40- osteoblast activity drops, osteoclast activity remains constant Women lose 8% of bone mass per decade, men 3%
Aging
Hormones and Bone Loss
Estrogens and androgens help maintain bone mass
Bone loss in women accelerates after menopause
Important Concepts
Skeletal functions Bone shapes (dont need to memorize markings) Bone structure Difference between compact/spongy bone Structure of each What makes up bone matrix Cell types/functions Describe periosteum & endosteum
Important Concepts
Describe process of bone formation- endochondral ossification & intramembranous ossification Describe how exercise affects bone formation How do hormones/nutrients influence bone formation Describe calcium homeostasis by calcitonin and parathyroid hormone Describe how fractures are healed (do not need to memorize fracture types) Osteopenia/osteoporosis