The Cellular Level of Organization

Chapter 3

Ch 3 Outline
Plasma membrane functions Cellular organelles- functions Nucleus/DNA Diffusion/osmosis Transport mechanisms Transmembrane potential Cell life cycle/regulation Cancer Cellular differentiation

Cell Theory
Cells are the building blocks of all life All cells come from the division of preexisting cells Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level

An Introduction to Cells
Sex cells (germ cells)- reproductive cells
Male sperm Female oocyte (egg)

Somatic cells (soma = body)

All body cells except sex cells

An Introduction to Cells
All cells are surrounded by a extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid) Plasma membrane (cell membrane) separates cytoplasm from the extracellular fluid Cytoplasm- cell contents
Cytosol- liquid within cell Organelles- intracellular structures

Anatomy of a Model Cell

Plasma Membrane
Functions of the Plasma Membrane
Physical isolation- barrier
Maintain homeostasis within cell

Regulates exchange with environment

Ions and nutrients enter

Wastes eliminated and cellular products released

Monitors the environment

Extracellular fluid composition- pH, composition, concentration Chemical signals- activation/deactivation

Structural support
Anchors cells and tissues

Plasma Membrane
Double layer of phospholipid molecules
Hydrophilic heads- toward watery environment, both sides Hydrophobic fatty-acid tails- inside membrane Barrier to ions and watersoluble compounds
Polar
Polar Nonpolar Polar

Nonpolar

Plasma Membrane- Membrane Proteins

Integral proteins- within the membrane

Peripheral proteins- bound to inner or outer surface of the membrane

Membrane Proteins
Anchoring proteins (stabilizers)- attach to inside or
outside structures

Recognition proteins (identifiers)- label cells as

normal or abnormal

Enzymes- catalyze reactions

Receptor proteins- bind and respond to ligands
(ions, hormones)

Carrier proteins- transport specific solutes through

membrane

Channels- regulate water flow & solutes through

membrane

Membrane Carbohydrates
Proteoglycans, glycoproteins, glycolipids
Extend outside cell membrane Form sticky sugar coat -glycocalyx

Functions of the glycocalyx

Lubrication & protection Anchoring & locomotion Specificity in binding (receptors) Recognition (immune response)

Plasma Membrane

Organelles and the Cytoplasm

All materials inside cell & outside nucleus
(thick syrupy consistency, lots of proteins)

Cytosol (fluid)
Dissolved materials:
nutrients, ions, proteins, and waste products

High potassium/low sodium High protein High carbohydrate/low amino acid and fat

Organelles
Structures with specific functions

Organelles
Nonmembranous organelles- no membrane
Direct contact with cytosol
Includes cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia, ribosomes, proteasomes

Membranous organelles- covered with plasma

membrane Isolated from cytosol Includes endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria

Cytoskeleton
Structural proteins for shape and strength Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules

Cytoskeleton- Microfilaments
Microfilaments- thin filaments composed of the protein actin Common in periphery of cell

Functions:
Anchor cytoskeleton to plasma membrane Determine consistency of cytoplasm Pair with thick filaments of myosin for movement in muscle

Cytoskeleton- Intermediate Filaments

Intermediate filaments- mid-sized between microfilaments and thick filaments Most durable (collagen)

Functions:
Strengthen cell and maintain shape Stabilize organelles Stabilize cell position with respect to surrounding cells

Cytoskeleton- Microtubules
Microtubules- large, hollow tubes of tubulin
protein Extend outward into periphery from centrosome Form primary components of cytoskeleton Functions:
Strengthen cell and anchor organelles Change cell shape Move vesicles within cell (kinesin and dynein) Form spindle apparatus Form structural components of cilia, centrioles

Microtubules

Microvilli
-Increase surface area for absorption -Attach to cytoskeleton

Actin filaments

Centrioles

Centrioles in the Centrosome:

-Form spindle apparatus during cell division -Centrosome: cytoplasm surrounding centriole

Cilia
Cilia- small hair-like extensions
Cilia move fluids across the cell surface Respiratory tract, reproductive tract

Ribosomes
Build polypeptides in protein synthesis
Free ribosomes in cytoplasm- manufacture
proteins for cell

Fixed ribosomes attached to ER- manufacture

proteins for secretion

Proteasomes
Contain enzymes (proteases) Disassemble damaged proteins for recycling

Membranous Organelles
Five types of membranous organelles
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Golgi apparatus

Lysosomes
Peroxisomes

Mitochondria

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Network of intracellular membranes connected to nuclear envelop Cisternae- storage chambers within membranes

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Smooth ER- no ribosomes Rough ER- bound ribosomes Functions:
Synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids Storage of synthesized molecules and materials Transport of materials within the ER Detoxification of drugs or toxins

Smooth ER
No ribosomes attached Synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates:
Phospholipids and cholesterol (membranes) Steroid hormones (reproductive system) Glycerides (storage in liver and fat cells) Glycogen (storage in muscles)

Rough ER
Surface covered with ribosomes:
Active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis Folds polypeptides protein structures Encloses products in transport vesicles

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Golgi Apparatus
Transport vesicles carry proteins to be excreted from cell from ER to golgi Vesicles enter forming face & exit maturing face trans Functions:
Modifies, packages secretions Renews, modifies plasma membrane Packages special enzymes within vesicles for use in cytosol

cis

Functions of the Golgi Apparatus

Golgi Apparatus

Secretory vesicles: modify & package products for exocytosis, secreted products Membrane renewal vesicles: add or remove membrane components, fuse to plasma membrane

Lysosomes
Powerful enzyme-containing vesicles:
lyso- = dissolve, soma = body

Breakdown, recycle large molecules & organelles Primary lysosome: formed by Golgi apparatus, inactive enzymes Secondary lysosome: lysosome fused with damaged organelle
Digestive enzymes activated Toxic chemicals isolated

Lysosomes
Functions
Clean up inside cells
Break down large molecules Attack bacteria Recycle damaged organelles Eject wastes by exocytosis

Autolysis: Auto- = self, lysis = break

Self-destruction of damaged cells: Lysosome membranes break down Digestive enzymes released Cell decomposes Cellular materials recycle

Lysosome Functions

Peroxisomes
Produced from pre-existing peroxisomes, not golgi apparatus like lysosomes
Enzymes produced by free ribosomes

Functions:
Break down fatty acids, organic compounds Produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) H2O2 is broken down into water and oxygen

Large number in liver- metabolically active

Mitochondria
Smooth outer & inner membrane with numerous folds-cristae

Matrix- fluid around cristae

Take chemical energy from food (glucose):

produces ATP

Mitochondria
Aerobic metabolism- cellular respiration
Use oxygen to break down food & produce ATP

Glycolysis: glucose to pyruvic acid (in cytosol) Krebs Cycle: pyruvic acid to CO2 (in matrix)
Generates protons for ETC

Electron transport chain: oxidative phosphorylation, generates ATP (inner mitochondrial membrane)

Role of Mitochondria in Energy Production

Nucleus
Largest organelle- cells control center Nuclear envelope- double membrane around the nucleus Perinuclear space- between 2 layers of the nuclear
envelope

Nuclear pores- communication passages

Contents of Nucleus
DNA- all information to build and run organisms Nucleoplasm- fluid containing ions, enzymes,
nucleotides, and some RNA

Nuclear matrix- support filaments

Nucleoli- synthesize rRNA and ribosomal subunits

Nucleosomes- DNA coiled around histones

Chromatin- loosely coiled DNA (cells not dividing)

Chromosomes- tightly coiled DNA (cells dividing)

Nucleus

Organization of DNA within the Nucleus

Information Storage in the Nucleus

DNA- instructions for every protein in the body Gene- DNA instructions for one protein

Genetic code- chemical language of DNA instructions:

Sequence of bases (A, T, C, G) Triplet code: 3 bases = 1 amino acid

Protein Synthesis
Role of Gene Activation in Protein Synthesis
Nucleus contains chromosomes Chromosomes contain DNA DNA stores genetic instructions for proteins Proteins determine cell structure and function

Protein Synthesis
Transcription
Copies instructions from DNA to mRNA (in nucleus)

Translation
Ribosome reads code from mRNA (in cytoplasm) Assembles amino acids into polypeptide chain

Processing
By RER and Golgi apparatus produce protein

Transcription of mRNA
A gene is transcribed to mRNA in three steps
Gene activation DNA to mRNA RNA processing

Transcription of mRNA
Step 1: Gene activation
Uncoils DNA, removes histones Start (promoter) & stop codes on DNA mark location of gene: Coding strand is code for protein Template strand used by RNA polymerase molecule

Transcription of mRNA
Step 2: DNA to mRNA
Enzyme RNA polymerase transcribes DNA: Binds to promoter Reads DNA code for gene Binds nucleotides, forming messenger RNA (mRNA) mRNA duplicates DNA coding strand, uracil replaces thymine

Transcription of mRNA
Step 3: RNA processing
At stop signal, mRNA detaches from DNA molecule:
Code is edited- RNA processing
Introns removed (non-coding) Exons spliced together Codon (3 nucleotides) represents 1 amino acid

mRNA Transcription

Translation Overview
mRNA exits nucleus through a nuclear pore mRNA then moves to a ribosome in cytoplasm Surrounded by amino acids

mRNA binds to ribosomal subunits tRNA delivers amino acids to mRNA

Protein Synthesis
Translation
tRNA anticodon binds to mRNA codon
1 mRNA codon translates to 1 amino acid

Enzymes join amino acids with peptide bonds

Polypeptide chain has specific sequence of amino acids

At stop codon, components separate

Process of Translation

Process of Translation

Process of Translation

Protein Synthesis

Nucleus Controls Cell Structure & Function

Direct control through synthesis of
Structural proteins (cytoskeleton, receptors) Secretions Alter internal structure of cell, sensitivity to substances in environment, secretory functions

Indirect control over metabolism through enzymes

Membrane Transport
Plasma membrane- barrier
Nutrients must get in Products and wastes must get out

Permeability determines what moves in and out of a cell Membrane that

Lets nothing in or out- impermeable Lets anything pass- freely permeable Restricts movement- selectively permeable

Membrane Transport
Plasma membrane- selectively permeable
Allows some materials to move freely Restricts other materials

Selective permeability restricts materials based on

Size Electrical charge Molecular shape Lipid solubility

Membrane Transport
Transport through a plasma membrane can be:
Active- requiring energy (ATP) Passive- no energy required

Diffusion- passive Carrier-mediated transport- passive or active Vesicular transport- active

Membrane Transport- Diffusion

All molecules are constantly in motion Molecules in solution move randomly

Random motion causes mixing

Concentration- amount of solute in a solvent Concentration gradient- more solute in one part of a solvent than another
Diffusion is a function of the concentration gradient

Diffusion
Molecules mix randomly Solute spreads through solvent

Eliminates concentration gradient

Solutes move down a concentration gradient

Factors Affecting Diffusion

Distance the particle has to move

Molecule size- smaller is faster

Temperature- more heat, faster motion Gradient size- difference between high & low concentrations

Electrical forces- opposites attract, like charges repel

Diffusion Across Plasma Membranes

Can be simple or channel mediated Simple diffusion: through plasma membrane
Lipid-soluble compounds- alcohols, fatty acids,
steroids

Dissolved gases- oxygen, carbon dioxide

Transmembrane proteins: pass through channels

Water-soluble compounds Ions- have a charge

Diffusion Across Plasma Membranes

Factors in channel-mediated diffusion
Passage depends on:
Size Charge Interaction with the channel

Diffusion Across Plasma Membrane

Osmosis: A Special Case of Diffusion

Osmosis- the diffusion of water across cell membrane
More solute molecules, lower concentration of water molecules Membrane must be freely permeable to water, selectively permeable to solutes Water molecules diffuse across membrane toward solution with more solutes Volume increases on the side with more solutes

Osmosis

Osmosis
Osmotic Pressure
Force of a concentration gradient of water Equals the force (hydrostatic pressure) needed to block osmosis

Osmolarity and Tonicity

The osmotic effect of a solute on a cell:
Two fluids may have equal osmolarity, but different tonicity

Isotonic (iso- = same, tonos = tension)

A solution that does not cause osmotic flow of water in or out of a cell

Hypotonic (hypo- = below)

Has less solutes & loses water through osmosis

Hypertonic (hyper- = above)

Has more solutes and gains water by osmosis

Osmolarity and Tonicity

A cell in a hypotonic solution:
Gains water Ruptures (hemolysis of red blood cells)

A cell in a hypertonic solution:

Loses water Shrinks (crenation of red blood cells)

Osmotic Flow across a Plasma Membrane

Carrier-Mediated Transport
Carrier-mediated transport of ions & organic substrates
Facilitated diffusion (passive) Active transport

Characteristics: Specificity:
One transport protein, one set of substrates

Saturation limits:
Rate depends on transport proteins, not substrate

Regulation:
Cofactors such as hormones

Carrier-Mediated Transport
Cotransport (symport)- two substances move in the same direction at the same time Countertransport (antiport)- one substance moves in while another moves out

Carrier-Mediated Transport
Facilitated diffusion- passive
Carrier proteins transport molecules too large to fit through channel proteins (glucose, amino acids):
Molecule binds to receptor site on carrier protein Protein changes shape, molecules pass through Receptor site is specific to certain molecules

Facilitated Diffusion

Carrier-Mediated Transport
Active transport
Active transport proteins:
Move substrates against concentration gradient Require energy, such as ATP Ion pumps move ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) Exchange pump countertransports 2 ions at the same time

Active Transport
Sodium-potassium exchange pump
Active transport, carrier mediated: Sodium ions (Na+) out, potassium ions (K+) in 1 ATP moves 3 Na+ and 2 K+

Secondary Active Transport

Na+ concentration gradient drives glucose transport ATP energy pumps Na+ back out

Vesicular Transport
Bulk transport- materials move into or out of cell in
vesicles Endocytosis (endo- inside)- active transport using ATP: Receptor mediated Pinocytosis Phagocytosis Exocytosis (exo- outside) Granules or droplets are released from the cell

Endocytosis: Receptor-Mediated
Receptors (glycoproteins) bind ligands Coated vesicle (endosome) carries ligands & receptors into the cell

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Pinocytosis
Endosomes drink extracellular fluid

Phagocytosis

Pseudopodia psuedo- false pod- foot

Engulf large objects in phagosomes

Exocytosis
Reverse of endocytosis

Transmembrane Potential
Interior of cell- negative, outside- positive
Unequal charge across the plasma membranetransmembrane potential Resting potential ranges: 10 mV to 100 mV, depending on cell type

Cell Life Cycle

Most of a cells life is spent in nondividing stateinterphase

Cellular Life Cycle- Interphase

Nondividing period
G0 phase- specialized cell functions only
(neurons, muscle cells)

G1 phase- cell growth, organelle duplication, protein synthesis S phase- DNA replication and histone synthesis G2 phase- finishes protein synthesis & centriole replication

DNA Replication- S phase

DNA strands unwind, DNA polymerase attaches complementary nucleotides

Mitosis- Prophase
Chromosomes become visible under light microscope Nucleoli disappear Centriole pairs move to cell poles Microtubules (spindle fibers) extend between centriole pairs Nuclear envelope disappears Spindle fibers attach to kinetochore

Interphase

Early Prophase

Late Prophase

Metaphase
Chromosomes align along metaphase plate

Anaphase
Microtubules pull sister chromatids apart

Telophase
Nuclear membranes reform, chromosomes uncoil Nucleoli reappear- cell has 2 complete nuclei

Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm Cleavage furrow around metaphase plate Membrane closes, producing daughter cells

Cell Differentiation
All cells carry complete DNA instructions for all body functions- dont look the same! Cells differentiate- become specialized
Form distinct cell types (liver cells, fat cells, neurons) Turn off all genes not needed by that cell

All body cells, except sex cells, contain the same 46 chromosomes Differentiation depends on which genes are active and which are inactive