Part 2. Weathering.

2A. General Comments. 1. Average Sandstone vs. Plutonic Rock. 2. Why is Quartz More Abundant in Average Sandstone?

2B. Physical Weathering. 1. Main Types of Physical Weathering. 2. Relative Importance.

2C. Chemical Weathering. 1. Types of Chemical Reactions. 2. Relative Importance. 2D. Soil Formation. 1. Soil Profile. 2. Soil Types and Their Latitude Distribution.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2A. General Comments.
1. Average Sandstone vs. Plutonic Rock. 2. Why is Quartz More Abundant in Average Sandstone?

2B. Physical Weathering. 1. Main Types of Physical Weathering. 2. Relative Importance.

2C. Chemical Weathering. 1. Types of Chemical Reactions. 2. Relative Importance. 2D. Soil Formation. 1. Soil Profile. 2. Soil Types and Their Latitude Distribution.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2A. General Comments. Weathering includes the physical and chemical processes that break down pre-existing rock to produce discrete particles (i.e. solids, includes minerals and mineralloids + chemical ions). It is an important linking process in the Rock Cycle; it is the beginning of the formation of the particles that make up sediments and sedimentary rocks. Once pre-existing rocks are uplifted to be exposed to Earths atmosphere and biosphere (low T & P conditions) weathering begins. Weathering processes are favored or advanced in regions of low topographic relief. Why?

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2A. General Comments. 2A.1. Average Sandstone vs. Plutonic Rock.

Let us consider the following claims (hypothesis statements):

Claim #1: Sediments and sedimentary rocks are the result of the physical disintegration of the most abundant rocks found in Earths upper crust exposed above sea level. continental crust; acidic plutonic igneous rocks; 78% continental crust is made up of granite and granodiorite

Claim #2: Claim #1 is not true.

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2A.1. Average Sandstone vs. Plutonic Rock. Tests:

make comparisons between average sandstone and plutonic igneous rocks

Texture Test: crystal size of average plutonic rock = 2 mm grain size average sandstone = 1 to 2 mm (generous) Is this test full proof?

conclusion: not supportive of Claims #1 or #2

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2A.1. Average Sandstone vs. Plutonic Rock. Tests:

make comparisons between average sandstone and plutonic igneous rocks

Mineral Composition Test: average mineral compositions
Mineral
Quartz Feldspars Biotite Amphiboles Pyroxenes others

Granite Granodiorite
21 27 % 61 65 % 35% 1 13 % 0% ~2%

Sandstone
65 % 10 15 % <1% <1% << 1 % ~ 21 %

conclusion: Claim #2 supported.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2A. General Comments. 2A.2. Why Is Quartz More Abundant in the Average Sandstone?

If the average sandstone does not reflect the simple disintegration of granite or granodiorite (Claim #2), then what processes explain the increased abundance of quartz?
Both physical and chemical weathering are important. One way to understand this question is to look at the bond strengths of the common minerals found in igneous rocks.

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2A. General Comments. Sum of bond strengths:

vertical axis = sum of bond strengths between oxygen and cations

horizontal axis = arbitrary arrangement of minerals
40,000 Bond Strength (cal/mole)

Quartz

35,000

K-feldspar

Na-feldspar Ca-feldspar

30,000

Amphibole and Pyroxene Biotite Olivine

What does this diagram remind you of?

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Part 2. Weathering.
2A. General Comments. Explanation for increase in quartz content in average sandstone:

1) Quartz is more chemically stable compared to other common minerals at Earths surface P/T conditions.
2) Quartz is more resistant to abrasion compared to other common minerals. Mohs hardness of quartz = 7 quartz cleavages = none; conchoidal fracture 3) Quartz is more likely to be recycled as a consequence of 1) and 2). sedimentary rock uplift weathering sediment

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Part 2. Weathering.
2A. General Comments. 1. Average Sandstone vs. Plutonic Rock. 2. Why is Quartz More Abundant in Average Sandstone?

2B. Physical Weathering.

1. Main Types of Physical Weathering. 2. Relative Importance.

2C. Chemical Weathering. 1. Types of Chemical Reactions. 2. Relative Importance. 2D. Soil Formation. 1. Soil Profile. 2. Soil Types and Their Latitude Distribution.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2B. Physical Weathering. Definition:

Physical weathering is the disintegration of rock into discrete particles resulting from the application of mechanical stress alone.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2B. Physical Weathering. 2B.1. Main Types of Physical Weathering.

1) Freeze-Thaw:
water seeps into rock voids freezing volume expansion exerts stress water seeps into larger rock voids and repeats Similar process operates in arid climates or near the sea shore where high salinity water enters rock voids and evaporation precipitates salts and salt crystal growth exerts mechanical stress: salt weathering

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Part 2. Weathering.
2B. Physical Weathering. 2) Insolation:

occurs in areas with extreme daily temperature fluctuations;

minerals have different thermal expansion/contraction rates; sets up differential stresses and rock breakage; most commonly observed in winter season in deserts. 3) Stress Release: with uplift, rock overburden stress release (prevalent with rapid uplift); rock elastic limit exceeded resulting in breakage.
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Part 2. Weathering.
2B. Physical Weathering. 4) Organic Activity:

involves organisms living on and in weathering rock (microbial to large land plants and animals);
root growth widens fractures with time; animals burrow and ingest weathering rock.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2B. Physical Weathering. 2B.2. Relative Importance.

Although mechanical stresses described above are small, they take their toll on weathering landscapes when considered over time periods of 102 to 104 years.
Taking a global perspective, physical weathering processes can be ranked from most important to least important as follows: most least Stress Release Organic Activitiy (post-Silurian, why?) Insolation Freeze-Thaw (why listed as least important?)

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Part 2. Weathering.
2A. General Comments. 1. Average Sandstone vs. Plutonic Rock. 2. Why is Quartz More Abundant in Average Sandstone?

2B. Physical Weathering. 1. Main Types of Physical Weathering. 2. Relative Importance.

2C. Chemical Weathering.

1. Types of Chemical Reactions. 2. Relative Importance.

2D. Soil Formation. 1. Soil Profile. 2. Soil Types and Their Latitude Distribution.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2C. Chemical Weathering. Definition:

Chemical weathering involves those processes that chemically alter preexisting rock.
Such processes proceed in 2 distinct ways: 1) Complete dissolution preexisting rock solid atoms and molecules are chemically disassociated to form ions in solution, which in turn are carried away.

2) Formation of new minerals

preexisting rock minerals are chemically altered to form new minerals.
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Part 2. Weathering.
2C. Chemical Weathering. Chemical weathering processes are for the most part aqueous reactions (including acids) which attack solid surfaces in preexisting rock. Thus, the greater the surface area per unit volume, the more susceptible a rock or mineral is to chemical weathering. Consider the Exploding Cube Model. What is the surface area of cube with 1 cm side? area = side2 X 6 sides area = 12 X 6 = 6 cm2 What is the total surface area of cube made up of subcubes with 0.5 cm sides?
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Part 2. Weathering.
2C. Chemical Weathering. area = side2 X 6 sides

area = 12 X 6 = 6 cm2
What is the total surface area of cube made up of subcubes with 0.5 cm sides? total area unit cube = side2 X 6 sides X number of subcubes total area = 0.52 X 6 X 8 = 12 cm2

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Part 2. Weathering.
2C. Chemical Weathering. 1-cm cube side 0.5-cm cube side
Exploding Cube Model
200 180 160

Total Surface Area (cm^2)

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0.000 0.500 1.000

12 cm2
Geology 3153 Part 2.
Side Dimension (cm)

6 cm2
20

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2C. Chemical Weathering. 1-cm cube side 0.5-cm cube side 0.25-cm cube side
Exploding Cube Model
200 180 160

192 cm2

Total Surface Area (cm^2)

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0.000 0.500 1.000

96 cm2 48 cm2 24 cm2 12 cm2

Side 3153 Dimension (cm) Geology Part 2.

6 cm2
21

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2C. Chemical Weathering. Exploding Cube Model taken to the extreme.
Exploding Cube Model
3500

3000

Total Surface Area (cm^2)

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0 0.000 0.500 1.000

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Part 2. Weathering.
2C. Chemical Weathering. The Exploding Cube Model is an ideal case. What is its relevance to real rocks and minerals? Rocks and minerals with inherent weaknesses (e.g. cleavage) or finer textures are more susceptible to weathering chemical reactions.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2C. Chemical Weathering. 2C.1. Types of Chemical Reactions.

1) Simple Solution:
Solid Mineral + Acid or Water Ions in Solution Chemical solubility is the maximum amount of a chemically dissolved substance that can be held in solution at a given physical condition (T&P) to produce a stable system. Examples: SiO2 + 2H20 H4SiO4 CaCO3 + H2O Ca+2 + 2HCO3

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Part 2. Weathering.
2C. Chemical Weathering. In natural water systems, the most important acid comes from dissolved CO2, which makes

tropical and grassland and subtropical temperate forest soils (4.0-6.0) soils (6.0-7.0) rain water (5.5-6.5) sea water (8.1-8.3)

arid soils soils (9.0+)

carbonic acid.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2C. Chemical Weathering. 2) Hydration and Dehydration: Solid Mineral + Water Hydrated mineral Solid Mineral + Water Hydrated mineral Examples: CaSO4.2H2O CaSO4 + 2H2O Fe2O3 2Fe(OH)3 dehydration hydration

Note: if the above reactions are reversed, then they are opposite of the examples given.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2C. Chemical Weathering. 3) Hydrolysis:

Mineral with Mobile Cations + Hydrogen Ion Dissolved or Partially Altered Mineral in which Hydrogen Ions Replace Mobile Ions
Note how hydrolysis reactions differ from simple solution and hydration-dehydration. Example: Mg2SiO4 + 4H+ 2Mg+2 + H4SiO4

A new acid or new mineral, which typically clay, is formed as byproduct of hydrolysis.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2C. Chemical Weathering. 4) Oxidation and Reduction:

Atmospheric Oxygen Gains Electrons and Is Reduced as Minerals Lose Electrons and Produce Oxidized Minerals
Oxidation and reduction are linked one does not occur without the other. oxidation = an atom or ion losses ereduction = an atom or ion gains eExample: 2FeS2 + 7.5O2 + 4H2O Fe2O3 + 4SO4-2 + 8H+ note the valence state changes in Fe and S
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Part 2. Weathering.
2C. Chemical Weathering. Eh expresses the potential for oxidation (+) or reduction (-). Aqueous systems and mineral stability are often expressed by the relationship between Eh and pH.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2C. Chemical Weathering. 2C.2. Relative Importance.

Because chemical weathering depends on the chemical reactivity of a particular rock type and its minerals to the local water chemistry, it is only broad generalizations are possible as to the relative importance of chemical weathering processes.
tropical climates oxidation and hydrolysis are important alternating wet/dry climates oxidation and hydration/dyhration chemically soluable rocks simple solution

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Part 2. Weathering.
2C. Chemical Weathering. 2C.2. Relative Importance.

What weathers faster and why?

quartzite vs. limestone granite vs. basalt

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Part 2. Weathering.
2A. General Comments. 1. Average Sandstone vs. Plutonic Rock. 2. Why is Quartz More Abundant in Average Sandstone?

2B. Physical Weathering. 1. Main Types of Physical Weathering. 2. Relative Importance.

2C. Chemical Weathering. 1. Types of Chemical Reactions. 2. Relative Importance.

2D. Soil Formation.

1. Soil Profile. 2. Soil Types and Their Latitude Distribution.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2D. Soil Formation. Soil formation is the result of the interaction between:

geosphere, atmosphere and biosphere

Soil is the mantle of weathering byproducts that exhibit an organized or semi-organized vertical arrangement of mineralogy, texture and/or fabric. Factors that influence soil formation are: type of preexisting rock, climate, soil biota, topographic relief, and exposure time.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2D. Soil Formation. Ancient soils, known as paleosols, provide important insights to Earths past climate and terrestrial biosphere conditions since perhaps Silurian (413-425 Ma) and at least Devonian (355-413 Ma); new research has argued for Proterozoic paleosol development.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2D. Soil Formation. 2D.1 Soil Profile.

An idealized vertical soil profile is divided in to horizons based on soil forming processes and characteristics.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2D. Soil Formation. Soil profile development (thickness and degree of horizon formation) depends on: 1) rate of erosion (removal of weathering products) lower erosion stronger development 2) weathered rock composition more reactive, finer textured stronger, quicker development 3) climate conditions

wetter, warmer climate more intense chemical weathering

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Part 2. Weathering.
2D. Soil Formation. 2D.2. Soil Types and Their Latitude Distribution.

We will only consider some of the 12 recognized soil groups (also known as Soil Orders).
Soil types are classified based on horizon development and other characteristics.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2D. Soil Formation.

Entisols
incipient soils with C horizon + weakly developed A and B
mainly found in areas of steep topographic relief and/or low rainfall

Inceptisols
weakly developed soil profile with C horizon and immature B found where soil processes beginning to develop

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Entisol (eastern Texas)

weakly developed A horizon

weakly developed B horizon

C horizon
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Inceptisol (West Virginia)

immature B horizon

C horizon

R horizon
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Part 2. Weathering.
2D. Soil Formation.

Gelisols
weakly developed soil profile with permafrost layer (ice-cement)
found where annual soil T below freezing

Aridisols
weakly developed profile with little organic matter in A horizon and absences or weakly developed E soluable minerals/mineralloids redistributed in A horizon to form a duricrust during dry season (soil moisture evaporation) calcrete = calcium carbonate duricrust gypcrete = gypsum duricrust silicrete = silica duricrust
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Part 2. Weathering.
2D. Soil Formation. aridisols form in arid and semiarid climates

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Aridisol (western Nevada)

calcrete and little organic in A horizon

calcrete in A horizon

C horizon

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Part 2. Weathering.
2D. Soil Formation.

Mollisols
thin to absent O horizon with well developed soil profile and calcium-rich A horizon
found under grassland vegetation (restricted to Miocene and younger; why?)

Spodosols
well developed soil profile with Al-oxides (+ Fe-oxides) in B horizon develop under forest vegetation in temperate climates

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Mollisol (Rio de Janeiro Brazil)

O horizon A horizon

E horizon B horizon

C horizon

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Spodosol (northern New York)

O horizon A horizon

E horizon

B horizon (Al and Fe oxides)

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C horizon

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Part 2. Weathering.
2D. Soil Formation.

Ultisols
well developed E and B horizons; red and yellow colors; less intense chemical weathering as oxisols
most commonly form in subtropical climates

Oxisols
well developed E and B horizons; thin O, A and C horizons, red color characteristic of tropical climates under heavy forest canopy

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Ultisol (western Arkansas)

E horizon

B horizon

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Oxisol (Puerto Rico)

E horizon

B horizon

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Part 2. Weathering.
2D. Soil Formation. Because climate is largely controlled by latitude position, dominant and total weathering and soil types are distributed by latitude position. Given this understanding, paleosol distribution yields important clues to past climate distributions.

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Part 2. Weathering.
2D. Soil Formation.

total weathering

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