NETWORK MANAGEMENT

Topics to be covered
Unit I INTRODUCTION
Networking basics, LANs and WANs - Network hardware Components - Server based networks - Peer to Peer networks - Server based Vs Peer to Peer networks - Specialized servers, Network Packets - Combination networks, Protocols - Addressing Packets, multiplexing - The OSI Reference model Internet protocol stack

What is a computer Network?

A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one another over a shared network medium.

A computer network is a collection of two or more connected computers. When these computers are joined in a network, people can share files and peripherals such as modems, printers, tape backup drives, or CD-ROM drives.
When networks at multiple locations are connected using services available from phone companies, people can send e-mail, share links to the global Internet, or conduct video conferences in real time with other remote users.

When a network becomes open sourced it can be managed properly with online collaboration software. As companies rely on applications like electronic mail and database management for core business operations, computer networking becomes increasingly more important.
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Every network includes: At least two computers Server or Client workstation. Networking Interface Card's (NIC) A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although wireless communication between networked computers and peripherals is also possible. Network Operating system software, such as Microsoft Windows NT or 2000, Novell NetWare, Unix and Linux.

Types of Networks:
LANs (Local Area Networks)
networks usually confined to a geographic area, such as a single building or a college campus. LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but often link hundreds of computers used by thousands of people.
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 WANs (Wide Area Networks)

combines multiple LANs that are geographically separate. This is accomplished by connecting the different LANs using services such as dedicated leased phone lines, dial-up phone lines (both synchronous and asynchronous), satellite links, and data packet carrier services.

MANs (Metropolitan area Networks)

The refers to a network of computers with in a City.

VPN (Virtual Private Network)

Tunneling to transfer data securely on the Internet to a remote access server on your workplace network. VPN helps you save money by using the public Internet instead of making longdistance phone calls to connect securely with your private network There are two ways to create a VPN connection, by dialing an Internet service provider (ISP), or connecting directly to Internet.
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Categories of Network
Network can be divided in to two main categories: Peer-to-peer.
there are no dedicated servers or hierarchy among the computers. All of the computers are equal and therefore known as peers. Normally each computer serves as Client/Server and there is no one assigned to be an administrator responsible for the entire network.

Server based.
The client/server network is the most efficient way to provide:
Databases and management of applications such as Spreadsheets, Accounting, Communications and Document management. Network management. Centralized file storage.

The client/server model is basically an implementation of distributed or cooperative processing.

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 At the heart of the model is the concept of splitting application functions between a client and a server processor. The division of labor between the different processors enables the application designer to place an application function on the processor that is most appropriate for that function.

This lets the software designer optimize the use of processors by providing the greatest possible return on investment for the hardware.
Client/server application design also lets the application provider mask the actual location of application function. The user often does not know where a specific operation is executing. The entire function may execute in either the PC or server, or the function may be split between them. This masking of application function locations enables system implementers to upgrade portions of a system over time with a minimum disruption of application operations, while protecting the investment in existing hardware and software.

Network Hardware Components

What are the Hardware Components commonly found in a typical Network . . .? Cables Client Adapters Hubs Switches Access Points Routers Modems Modem Routers
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Ethernet Cables
When we reference Cables in Networking we are generally referring to RJ45 Ethernet Networking Cables;
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cables (UTP). Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

These Cables are often referred to by the Standard that they adhere to i.e. Category 5 (Cat 5) or Category 6 (Cat 6). The Cables are further distinguished with regard to they way in which they are wired;
Straight-Through (Patch) Crossover

Due to the widespread use of Auto-Sensing LAN Ports we see very little occasions where a Crossover Cable is actually required now.

Generally speaking Crossover Cables are just used when networking two PCs directly together, or when daisy-chaining Network Hubs.
For all other instances Patch Cables are generally used.
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Ethernet Cables - UTP Cables

Solid Core - Solid each Conductor is a single relatively thick Copper Wire Stranded - each Conductor consists of a number of thin Copper Wires Solid Cable is used for infrastructure Cabling. The cable is inflexible because of its structure and the maximum length would be 100 meters. Stranded Cables have no fixed maximum length, but are generally used for short distances. The Cables are flexible, and the maximum length largely depends on Cable Quality and Shielding. Standard Ethernet (10/100) Cables only use 4 out of the 8 Connectors, whereas Gigabit uses all 8.
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Client Adapters
There are numerous types of Network Interface Cards or Client Adapters and they are usually identified by their Type and Connection Technology; Every Network Interface Card (NIC) has a unique MAC address pointing to its Manufacturer.

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Hub
Hubs tie the Network together. A Network can be extended by daisy-chaining one Hub to another. Hubs by default echo all traffic to all Ports, so when a Packet of data arrives at one Port, it is copied to the other Ports so that all segments of the Network can see all Packets.

Switch
Switches differ from Hubs in that they track MAC Addresses on both sides of the Network and do not echo any traffic that does not need to be echoed. Broadcast messages are not filtered via Switches, and these are continued to be echoed to all Ports, but otherwise the Switch is intelligently filtering to ensure that only traffic destined for a particular MAC Address on a Particular Port, gets to that device.

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Access Point

An Access Point is a device for adding Wireless Connectivity to an existing Wired Network. It is clear that an Access Point is a Wireless Device . . . But is it a Hub or a Switch? Well it is in fact both a Hub and a Switch.

As Access Points are Wireless, and Wireless Bandwidth is by nature a shared resource, the Access Point (AP) is acting in this role as a Hub as it does not filter any of the Wireless Communication.
If however an Access Point Is connected to an existing Wired Network, then the Access Point (AP) will act like a Switch and filter Traffic accordingly. Should Client A send Data to Client B, the Access Point will filter the Data and ensure that it is not broadcasted to all Ports.

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Router -

A Router is in fact a . . .Router + Access Point + Network Switch

Whereas a Network Switch works at a MAC Address level a Router works at level, an IP Address level, and it has an IP Address for each Network that it is connected to. Based on Source and Destination IP Address and the Networks to which they belong, the Router decides to which Network to forward the Packet. Most End-User Routers, are Gateway Routers that simply connect a Local (LAN) Network with the rest of the World (WAN). Gateway Routers are usually based around Network Address Translation (NAT). The Network Address Translation (NAT) element handles the traffic from Routable(external) IP Addresses to the non-Routable (internal) IP Addresses of a typical internal Network or LAN. Three special Address Ranges are to be used in Local Networks (LANs) only, and they should not be forwarded to any Public Network.
Class A: 10.x.x.x Class B: 172.16.x.x 172.31.x.x Class C: 192.168.x.x
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Modem
The name Modem derives from the functionality of the Device in that it is Modem in essence a Modulator/Demodulator. It is essentially a Communications Device that converts one form of a signal to another that is suitable for transmission over a Phone Line. Typically Digital Data from a PC is converted to Analogue Data which is sent via the Phone Line and then from converted back from this Analogue Data to Digital Data again on the next PC. Modem Routers A Modem Router is in fact a . . . Router + Access Point + Network Switch +
Modem + NAT device

The WAN Port found on a typical Router is essentially replaced with a Phone Line connection Point.

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Server Based Networks

There are three roles for computers in a local area network.
The first role is a being clients which use but do not provide network resources. The second one is a being peers which both use and provide network resources. The last one is a being servers which provide network resources. The role of a computer is determined simply by use in the network many times.

Server (domain) / Client Networks Server-based (also called client-server) networks are defined by the presence of servers on a network that provide security and administration of the networks. It consists with many clients and one or more servers. Clients (often called the "front end") request services, such as file storage and printing, and servers (often called the "back end") deliver them. In Windows NT or Windows 2000, server-based networks are organized into domains. Domains are collections of networks and clients that share security trust information.
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 Domain security and logon permission are controlled by special servers called domain controllers. There is one master domain controller, called the Primary Domain Controller (PDC) and the secondary domain controllers called Backup Domain Controller (BDC) may assist PDC during busy times or when the PDC is not available for some reason.

The server-based networks have many advantages, including:

Central file storage, which allows all users to work form the same set of data and provides easy backup of critical data and keeps data from getting lost among computers

Ability of servers to pool available hardware and software, lowering overall costs Optimized dedicated servers, which are faster than peers at sharing network
Freeing of users from the task of managing network Easy manageability of a large number of users Ability to share expensive equipment, such as laser printers Less intrusive strong central security, since a single password need to access all shared resources on the network
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Server-based networks also have some disadvantages, including:

Expensive dedicated hardware Expensive network operating system software and client licenses A dedicated network administrator (usually required)

Peer Networks
Every computer on peer network is equal and can communicate with any other computer on the network to which it has been granted access rights. So basically, every computer on peer network functions as both a server and a client. The peer network is more common in small business.

The advantages are:

No extra investment for server software and hardware are needed No network administrator is needed Easy setup Lower cost

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The disadvantages are:

Additional load on computers for resource sharing Lack of central organization, which can make data hard to find Users must administer their own computers Weak and intrusive security

Hybrid Networks
Hybrid networks have all three types of computers and have active domains and workgroups. This means that network users have access to any resources being shared by peers in their workgroup while most shared resources are located on servers The advantages of hybrid networks are same as the advantages of serverbased and peer-based networks. Hybrid network shares the disadvantages of server-based network.

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Specialized Servers
There are several tasks for server in a network. All these tasks could be done by one server, or a separate server for each tasks. Server is dedicated to performing specific tasks in support of other computers on the network.

File Server:
File servers offer the services, which are the network applications that store, retrieve, and move data. With a file server, users can exchange, read, write, and manage shared files and the data contained in them. There are three ways to store a file on networks. - They are
online
Online storage consists of hard drive storage. Hard drive is very fast but expensive so the most current and frequently needed information is stored.

offline
The common offline storage devices are data tape and removable optical disks. It is the most disadvantage of offline storage that a person must retrieve the disk or tape and mount it on the server. This type of storage is best for data that is rarely used and for data backup.
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 Near-line Near-line storage uses a machine, such as a tape carousel or jukebox, automatically retrieve and mounts the tape or disk. It is faster than offline but still only enough for infrequently used data and applications.

File synchronization is to ensure that changes made to a file are organized in the chronological order in which they actually took place and that files are properly updated. But a network operating system cannot synchronize data within files if it is not aware of the file format. So, you need an option for it usually.

Print Server:
Print server manages and control printing on a network and also offers fax service. The print server allow multiple and simultaneous access to print and fax services. The network operating system achieves this by using print and fax queues. The queues are special storage areas where printing and faxing jobs are stored and then sent to the printer or fax device in an organized fashion.
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Application Server:
Application server allows a client on network to access and use extra computing power and expensive software applications on a shared computer. Application servers are used when efficiency and security requires a program to stay close to the data, and the data stays in one place.

Message Server:
Message servers allow a wide variety of communication methods that are much complex than a simple file server can handle. Data can take the form of graphics, digitized video, or audio, text and binary. Message servers must coordinate the complex interactions between users, documents, and applications.

Database Server :
Database server is one of application server. Database server allows a network with powerful database capabilities. So, users of a relatively weak client can enjoy the same power of database servers.
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Protocol Architecture
A protocol architecture is the layered structure of hardware and software that supports the exchange of data between systems and supports distributed applications, such as electronic mail and file transfer. The need for a protocol architecture The transfer of a file between two computers. There must be a data path between the two computers, either directly or via a communication network.
The source system must either activate the direct data communication path or inform the communication network of the identity of the desired destination system. The source system must ascertain that the destination system is prepared to receive data. The file transfer application on the source system must ascertain that the file management program on the destination system is prepared to accept and store the file for this particular user. If the file formats used on the two systems are different, one or the other system must perform a format translation function.
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 the task is broken up into subtasks, each of which is implemented separately. In a protocol architecture, the modules are arranged in a vertical stack. Each layer in the stack performs a related subset of the functions required to communicate with another system. To communicate, the same set of layered functions must exist in two systems. Communication is achieved by having the corresponding, or peer, layers in two systems communicate. The peer layers communicate by means of formatted blocks of data that obey a set of rules or conventions known as a protocol. The key features of a protocol are as follows:
Syntax: Concerns the format of the data blocks Semantics: Includes control information for coordination and error handling Timing: Includes speed matching and sequencing

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The OSI Reference Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)2 as a model for a computer protocol architecture and as a framework for developing protocol standards. The OSI model consists of seven layers:
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data link Physical

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The Physical Layer

The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.

The Data Link Layer

The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into a line that appears free of undetected transmission errors to the network layer.

The Network Layer

The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. A key design issue is determining how packets are routed from source to destination. Routes can be based on static tables that are ''wired into'' the network and rarely changed.

The Transport Layer The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above, split it up into smaller units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end. The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the session layer, and, ultimately, to the users of the network.
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The Session Layer

The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them. Sessions offer various services, including dialog control(keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit), token management(preventing two parties from attempting the same critical operation at the same time), and synchronization(check pointing long transmissions to allow them to continue from where they were after a crash). The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. In order to make it possible for computers with different data representations to communicate, the data structures to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way, along with a standard encoding to be used ''on the wire.'' The presentation layer manages these abstract data structures and allows higherlevel data structures (e.g., banking records), to be defined and exchanged. The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users. One widely-used application protocol is HTTP, which is the basis for the World Wide Web. When a browser wants a Web page, it sends the name of the page it wants to the server using HTTP. The server then sends the page back. Other application protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network news.
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The Presentation Layer

The Application Layer

Internet protocol stack

The Internet protocol suite is the networking model and a set of communications protocols used for the Internet and similar networks. It is commonly known as TCP/IP, because its most important protocols, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP) were the first networking protocols defined in this standard. TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination.

It has four abstraction layers which are used to sort all related protocols according to the scope of networking involved.
The link layer contains communication technologies for a single network segment (link) of a local area network. The internet layer (IP) connects independent networks, thus establishing internetworking. The transport layer handles host-to-host communication. The application layer contains all protocols for specific data communications services on a process-to-process level. For example, the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) specifies the web browser communication with a web server.
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Application layer (process-to-process): This is the scope within which applications create user data and communicate this data to other processes or applications on another or the same host. The communications partners are often called peers. This is where the higher level protocols such as SMTP, FTP, SSH, HTTP, etc. operate.
Transport layer (host-to-host): The transport layer constitutes the networking regime between two network hosts, either on the local network or on remote networks separated by routers.
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 The transport layer provides a uniform networking interface that hides the actual topology (layout) of the underlying network connections. This is where flow-control, error-correction, and connection protocols exist, such as TCP. This layer deals with opening and maintaining connections between Internet hosts.
Internet layer: The internet layer has the task of exchanging datagrams across network boundaries. It is therefore also referred to as the layer that establishes internetworking, indeed, it defines and establishes the Internet. This layer defines the addressing and routing structures used for the TCP/IP protocol suite. The primary protocol in this scope is the Internet Protocol, which defines IP addresses. Its function in routing is to transport datagrams to the next IP router that has the connectivity to a network closer to the final data destination.
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Link layer: This layer defines the networking methods within the scope of the local network link on which hosts communicate without intervening routers. This layer describes the protocols used to describe the local network topology and the interfaces needed to effect transmission of Internet layer datagrams to next-neighbor hosts.
The Internet protocol suite and the layered protocol stack design were in use before the OSI model was established. Since then, the TCP/IP model has been compared with the OSI model in books and classrooms, which often results in confusion because the two models use different assumptions and goals, including the relative importance of strict layering.

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