Wireless Personal Communications Systems CSE5807

Lecture: 03 Stephen Giles and Satha K. Sathananthan

School of Computer Science and Software Engineering

Monash University Australia

Modified by Peter Granville August 2006

These slides contain figures from Stallings, and are based on a set developed by Tom Fronckowiak .
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Access Technologies

Uplink / Reverse Channel Base station

Downlink / Forward Channel

Responsible for interacting with the medium (wireless channel) to coordinate the successful operation of multiple terminals. Separation between uplink and downlink: - Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD):
Uplink and downlink channels use different carrier frequencies.

- Time Division Duplexing (TDD)

Uplink and downlink channels use same frequency band but different time slots.

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Access Technologies
Fixed-Assignment Access: Voice-oriented Networks
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Random or Dynamic Access: Data-oriented Networks

Aloha Techniques Carrier Sense Multiple Access Techniques (CSMA)

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Access Technologies
Collision Resolution
e.g.: Pure Aloha

Reservation

Fixed Allocation
e.g.: FDMA & TDMA

Dynamic Allocation

Use of collision resolution with implicit reservation

e.g.: CSMA/CD

Use of round-robin ordering e.g.: Token ring, token bus

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Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Based on Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). All users transmit signal simultaneously, and they are separated from one another from by their frequency of operation. Time

F1

F2

F3

F4

F5

Frequency

Used in most of the First Generation (1G) cellular networks.

AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service) system allocates 30 kHz of bandwidth for each forward and reverse channel.
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Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Adjacent channel interference

Use of guard bands..

Power control.

TDD and FDD:

Time Time
Uplink

Downlink F1 F2 F3 Uplink F1 F2 F3 Downlink

Frequency

F1

F2

F3

F4

Frequency

FDMA/FDD
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FDMA/TDD

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Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Based on Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
A number of users share the same frequency band by taking assigned turns in using the channel.
Users are assigned different time slots.

Synchronous time slots pre-assigned to sources and fixed.

Frequency

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

Time

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 Digital format (more flexible).

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) allocates 8 time slots within a 200 kHz carrier bandwidth.

Used in most of the Second Generation (2G) cellular networks.

TDD and FDD:

Time Time
T1 Downlink T2 Uplink F1 Uplink F1 Downlink T3 F1

Frequency

Frequency

TDMA/FDD

TDMA/TDD

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Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Based on Spread Spectrum technology. A number of users use the same band at the same time, and the users are differentiated by a code.
Time Code

C3 C2 C1

Frequency

Accommodate different bandwidth requirements and switching methods without any need for coordination.

Each user contributes to interference => Power control

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Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

More capacity and better quality. Used in 2G and 3G cellular networks.
2G: IS-95 3G: IMT-2000

Uses TDD and FDD

Time

Time

Code
Downlink

Uplink

Frequency
Uplink Downlink

Frequency

CDMA/FDD

CDMA/TDD

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Random Access Methods

Allocating a single channel among competing users. Belongs to a sublayer of the data link layer, called the Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayer.
- Each node has a queue of frames to be transmitted. - Nodes normally send new frames immediately, hoping for no interference from other nodes. - How frames are transmitted when collision occur? => Pure Aloha => Slotted Aloha

=> Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

=> CSMA/CD => CSMA/AD
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 Wireless access to a mainframe: Alohanet, invented and demonstrated in 1970 in Hawaii.

::::
mainframe

Pure Aloha

wireless (common channel)

Stations/terminals

When stations are ready for transmission, they will transmit immediately hoping that other stations will not transmit at the same time. If two or more stations transmit at the same time, a transmission collision occurs and the receivers will not be able to read the transmissions correctly.
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Pure Aloha
A sender will generally realize its transmission is unsuccessful, by not receiving an acknowledgement some time after the completion of its transmission. The sender then retransmits the same data frame again. Why use such an unreliable method? Simple a complicated mechanism will be more difficult and expensive to implement Chances of transmission collision is small - if small number of terminals.

Chances of collision increase with load, maximum utilization of channel is18%.

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Slotted Aloha
Time on the channel is organized into uniform slots whose size
equals the frame transmission time. Central clock needed to synchronize all stations Stations when they are ready, can only transmit at the beginning of a timeslot. Thus, frames that do overlap will do so totally. Maximum utilization of channel increases to 37% Slotted Aloha with TDMA: - Also called Reservation-Aloha (R-Aloha) - Used in GSM for initial contact between MS and BS.
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Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

If the signal propagation time is small compared to frame transmission time, a station should listen

Carrier Sense - Listen to determine if another transmission is in progress before transmit.

Reduces collisions - will only occur when two stations begin to transmit (almost) simultaneously Increased utilization of channel.

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CSMA What should a station do if medium busy ?

non-persistent CSMA:
1. 2. If medium is idle, transmit; else go to 2 If medium is busy, wait an amount of time (the retransmission delay) drawn from a probability distribution; go to 1. Some capacity wasted

Random delay reduces the probability of collisions 1-persistent CSMA:

1.
2.

If medium is idle, transmit; else go to 2

If medium is busy, continue to listen until channel is sensed idle; then transmit immediately (with p = 1) If two stations are waiting to transmit, a collision will occur.

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CSMA What should a station do if medium busy ?

p-persistent CSMA:
1. If medium is idle, transmit with probability p, and delay one time unit with probability (1 p). The time unit is equal to maximum propagation delay. If medium is busy, continue to listen until the channel is idle, to go 1. If transmission is delayed 1 time unit, after waiting, go to 1.

2. 3.

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Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

1. If the medium is idle, transmit; else go to 2.

2. If the medium is busy, continue to listen until channel is idle, then transmit immediately
3. If a collision is detected during transmission, transmit a brief jamming signal to assure that all stations know that there has been a collision then cease transmission 4. After transmitting the jamming signal, wait a random amount of time, the backoff, then go to 1.

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CSMA/CD Operation

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CSMA/CD with Binary Exponential Backoff

For 1 to 10 retransmission attempts, mean value of

random delay doubled. Mean value remains same for 11 to 16 collision

time n n+1 n+2 n+3

Possible slots for retransmission [n+1 to n+2c] [n+1 to n+210] =ABORT=

Number of collisions experienced in the past (c) 1 to 10 11 to 16 >16

Ethernet Protocol = 1-p CSMA/CD + BEB

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CSMA/CD and Wireless LANs

Collisions consume bandwidth - want to avoid.

Collision detection requires a station to be able to send data and receive collision signals at the same time, requires more complex electronics in wireless interface card.
Collisions may not be detected - a station may be hidden from in a wireless environment due to natural obstacles such as mountains or artificial obstacles such as buildings

The distance between stations in a wireless environment can be great signal fading could prevent a station hearing a collision
Wireless & Personal Communication Systems CSE5807

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Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

CSMA with Collision Avoidance. An idle channel must be detected before a transmission can take place. A receiver must reply with a short ACK to inform the sender that the transmission is successful so that unnecessary retransmission will not occur.

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Spread Spectrum
Occupies a much wider bandwidth.
Two types:
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

More robust to interference and interception.

First used in military communication applications and later adopted for commercial use. Superior performance over traditional radio signaling over multipath channel.

CDMA system offers more flexibility, superior performance and more capacity over FDMA/TDMA based systems.
Adopted for 3G Cellular systems.

Can be overlaid with other systems operating in the same band.

WLAN operating in unlicensed band.
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Spread Spectrum

Power

Narrowband Signal High peak power (Traditional Signal)

Spread Spectrum Signal Low peak power

Frequency

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Spread Spectrum
What can be gained from apparent waste of spectrum?
Immunity from various kinds of noise and multipath distortion. Can be used for hiding and encrypting signals. Several users can independently use the same higher bandwidth with very little interference.

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Frequency Hoping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series of radio frequencies.
A number of channels allocated for the FH signal. Width of each channel corresponds to bandwidth of input signal.

Signal hops from frequency to frequency at fixed intervals.

Transmitter operates in one channel at a time. Bits are transmitted using some encoding scheme. At each successive interval, a new carrier frequency is selected.

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Frequency Hoping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

Large number of frequencies used => Spread Spectrum.
Channel sequence dictated by spreading code. Receiver, hopping between frequencies in synchronization with transmitter, picks up message. Advantages:
Eavesdroppers hear only unintelligible blips. Attempts to jam signal on one frequency succeed only at knocking out a few bits. Results in a system that is quite resistant to jamming. Jammer must jam all frequencies. With fixed power, this reduces the jamming power in any one frequency band.

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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple bits in the transmitted signal.

Spreading code spreads signal across a wider frequency band.

Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits used.

One technique combines digital information stream with the spreading code bit stream using exclusive-OR.

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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

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Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

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Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Break each bit into k chips.
Chips are a user-specific fixed pattern

Chip data rate of new channel = kD where D = rate of original data signal.
If k=6 and code is a sequence of 1s and -1s
For a 1 bit, A sends code as chip pattern
<c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6>

For a 0 bit, A sends complement of code

<-c1, -c2, -c3, -c4, -c5, -c6>

Receiver knows senders code and performs decoding.

<d1, d2, d3, d4, d5, d6> = received chip pattern

Su d d1 c1 d 2 c 2 d 3 c3 d 4 c 4 d 5 c5 d 6 c6

<c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6> = senders code

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CDMA Example
User As code = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1> To send a 1 bit use chip pattern <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1>

To send a 0 bit use chip pattern <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1>

User Bs code = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1> To send a 1 bit = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1>

Base Station receives chip pattern and applies As code

(As code) x (received chip pattern) User A 1 bit: 6 ==> 1

User A 0 bit: -6 ==> 0

User B receives chip pattern and applies its code, result: 0 ==> unwanted signal; ignored
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Required Reading
W. Stallings, Wireless Communications and Networks Prentice-Hall, 2000. >> Chapter 2.5 and Chapter 7

Optional Reference
K. Pahlavan and K. Krishnamurthy Principles of Wireless Networks, Prentice-Hall, 2002.

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The following slides are for interest ONLY

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Spreading Sequences
Spreading Sequence Categories: PN sequences:
M-sequences Constructed by using shift registers. Gold sequences Constructed by using two m-sequences.

Orthogonal codes:
Walsh codes Variable-Length Orthogonal codes

For FHSS systems

PN sequences most common

For DSSS systems not employing CDMA

PN sequences most common

For DSSS CDMA systems

PN sequences Orthogonal codes
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PN Sequences
PN generator produces periodic sequence that appears to be random. PN Sequences:
Generated by an algorithm using initial seed. Sequence isnt statistically random but will pass many test of randomness. Sequences referred to as pseudorandom numbers or pseudonoise sequences. Unless algorithm and seed are known, the sequence is impractical to predict.

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Orthogonal Codes
Orthogonal codes
All pairwise cross correlations are zero. Fixed- and variable-length codes used in CDMA systems. For CDMA application, each mobile user uses one sequence in the set as a spreading code. Provides zero cross correlation among all users.

Types:
Welsh codes Variable-Length Orthogonal codes

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Typical Multiple Spreading Approach

Spread data rate by an orthogonal code (channelization code).
Provides mutual orthogonality among all users in the same cell.

Further spread result by a PN sequence (scrambling code).

Provides mutual randomness (low cross correlation) between users in different cells.

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Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

Transmission of Data in Parallel on Multiple Subcarriers (or Multiple Frequency Bands).

Orthogonal Subcarriers.
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Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

Advantages:
Resistance to Multipath fading Spectral Efficiency

Easy Implementation using FFT chips

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Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

Adopted in several wireless communication system standards.
Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB)

Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB)

Wireless LAN
IEEE802.11a and IEEE802.11g (Wi-Fi)

HiperLAN-1 and HiperLAN-2

Fixed Broadband Wireless Access Networks

IEEE802.16 (Wi-Max)

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OFDM and Multi-Access Technology

Multicarrier-CDMA (MC-CDMA):
OFDM and CDMA Multiple users are separated by CDMA codes. It is being considered for 4G Cellular Networks.

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Access (OFDMA).

Multiple users are assigned group of subcarriers. Used in IEEE802.16 networks.

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Ultra Wide Band (UWB) Transmission

Transmission of narrow pulses (order of few tenths of a nanosecond) with low power.
Very wide band (several GHz).
Can coexist with existing radio systems (in licensed band too). Robust to interference and multipath fading.

Suitable for short-range communication.

Is being considered for Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPAN). May replace Bluetooth?

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Non-Preemptive Multiple Access (NPMA)

Used in HiperLAN-1.

Listen before talk (similar to CSMA/CA). Uses the characteristics of Slotted-Aloha and TDMA. If a terminal sense a medium free for a certain duration, then it immediately transmits. If the channel is busy, the terminal goes through three phases when the channel become available.
- Prioritization phase - Contention phase - Transmission phase

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