Spectrum Sensing and

Allocation Techniques for

Cognitive Radios
Farrukh Javed
F-05-020/07-UET - PHD-CASE-CP-40
Sequence of Presentation
 Section I – Cognitive Radios
 Introduction
 Next generation networks
 Cognitive radios
 Section II – Spectrum Sensing
 Transmitter detection
 Cooperative detection
 Interference based detection
 Spectrum sensing challenges
 Section III – Spectrum Allocation
 Spectrum analysis
 Spectrum decision
 Section IV – Future of Cognitive Radios
 Conclusion
Cognitive Radios
Cognitive Radios
Section – I
Motivation for Cognitive
Radios

Spectrum
Scarcity [1]
Motivation for Cognitive
Radios

Spectrum
Utilisation [1] COGNITIVE
RADIOS
Motivation for Cognitive
Radios
Measured Spectrum Occupancy Averaged over Six Locations
PLM, Amateur, others: 30-54 MHz
TV 2-6, RC: 54-88 MHz
Air traffic Control, Aero Nav: 108-138 MHz
Fixed Mobile, Amateur, others:138-174 MHz
TV 7-13: 174-216 MHz
Maritime Mobile, Amateur, others: 216-225 MHz
Fixed Mobile, Aero, others: 225-406 MHz
Amateur, Fixed, Mobile, Radiolocation, 406-470 MHz
TV 14-20: 470-512 MHz
TV 21-36: 512-608 MHz
TV 37-51: 608-698 MHz
TV 52-69: 698-806 MHz
Cell phone and SMR: 806-902 MHz
Unlicensed: 902-928 MHz
Paging, SMS, Fixed, BX Aux, and FMS: 928-906 MHz
IFF, TACAN, GPS, others: 960-1240 MHz
Amateur: 1240-1300 MHz
Aero Radar, Military: 1300-1400 MHz
Space/Satellite, Fixed Mobile, Telemetry: 1400-1525 MHz
Mobile Satellite, GPS, Meteorologicial: 1525-1710 MHz
Fixed, Fixed Mobile: 1710-1850 MHz
PCS, Asyn, Iso: 1850-1990 MHz
TV Aux: 1990-2110 MHz
Common Carriers, Private, MDS: 2110-2200 MHz
Space Operation, Fixed: 2200-2300 MHz
Amateur, WCS, DARS: 2300-2360 MHz
Telemetry: 2360-2390 MHz
U-PCS, ISM (Unlicensed): 2390-2500 MHz
ITFS, MMDS: 2500-2686 MHz
Surveillance Radar: 2686-2900 MHz
0.0% 25.0% 50.0% 75.0% 100.0%
Spectrum Occupancy

Spectrum COGNITIVE
Concentration [2]
RADIOS
Cognition
 Oxford English Dictionary definition of
“cognition” as
“The action or faculty of knowing taken in its
widest sense, including sensation, perception,
conception, etc., as distinguished from feeling
and volition”
 Encyclopedia Encarta defines “cognition” as
“To acquire knowledge by use of reasoning,
intuition or perception”
 Encyclopedia of computer Sciences gives a
three point computational view of “cognition” as
“1. Mental state and processes intervene between
input stimuli and output responses
2. The mental state and processes are described
by algorithms
Cognitive Radio
 Joseph Mitola introduced the idea of Cognitive Radio
in 2000 as
“Situation in which wireless nodes and related
networks are sufficiently computationally intelligent
about radio resources and related computer to
computer communication to detect the user
communication needs as a function of user context
and to provide the resources most required”
 Simon Haykin explains the concept in six key words
 Awareness
 Intelligent
 Learning
 Adaptability
 Reliability
 Efficiency
 An intelligent radio capable of adapting itself to best
Operating Principal of CR
Overlay CRs utilise the concept of spectrum
holes
Underlay CRs use the concept of
interference temperature
Overlay Cognitive Radios

Time

COGNITIVE
RADIOS
Interference temperature
model
 Interference temperature TI is specified in Kelvin and is defined
as

where PI (fc , B) is the average interference power in Watts centered

at fc, covering bandwidth B measured in Hertz. Boltzmann's
constant k is 1.38 x 10-23
 Any Un-licensed transmission must not violate the interference
temperature limit at the licensed receivers. Mi is a fractional
value between 0 and 1, representing a multiplicative attenuation
due to fading and path loss between the unlicensed transmitter
and the licensed receiver.

 The TL is to be decided by regulatory authority such as FCC or

 Underlay Cognitive Radios

Interference Temperature Model [10]

SPECTRUM
Interference Temperature
Level
Interference temperature is the maximum
RF interference acceptable at a receiving
antenna
Basic Characteristics of
Cognitive Radios
Cognitive Capability
Re-configurability

COGNITIVE
RADIOS
Cognitive Capability
Cognitive Cycle
Spectrum Sensing
Spectrum Allocation
Spectrum Analysis
Spectrum Decision

Cognitive
cycle [3]
Re - Configurability
Operating Frequency
Modulation Scheme
Transmission Power
Communication Technology
Directivity of Transmission
Next Generation Networks
Introduction
Protocol Layers and Cognitive Radio
Functionalities

xG Network COGNITIVE
Functionalities [3]
RADIOS
Spectrum Sensing
Spectrum Sensing
Section – II
 Spectrum Sensing Techniques

SPECTRUM
 Transmitter Detection
Introduction

Techniques
Matched Filter Detection
Energy Detection
Cyclo – Stationary Feature Detection

SPECTRUM
 Matched Filter Detection

Transmitter
Introduction

Detection
Opportunities
Commonly Used
High Processing Gain
Challenges
Matched Filter Bound
A priori knowledge of transmission is required

SPECTRUM
 Energy Detection

Transmitter
Introduction

Detection
Opportunities
Easy implementation
Multi path and fading channel studies carried
out
Challenges
Critical selection of threshold
Susceptible to noise power variations
Communication type identification not
possible
Reduced flexibility

SPECTRUM
 Cyclo – Stationary Feature
Detection

Transmitter
Introduction

Detection
Opportunities
Robust against un-certain noise powers
Transmitter information is not required
Neural network application has been found
very feasible
Challenges
Computationally complex
Transmission type identification is not possible
Reduced flexibility

SPECTRUM
 Transmitter Detection Un –
Certainties

Transmitter
Receiver Un-certainty

Detection
Shadowing Un-certainty

(a) Receiver Uncertainty (b) Shadowing Uncertainty [3]

SPECTRUM
 Cooperative Detection
Introduction
Centralised Detection
Distributed Detection
Cooperative Detection Opportunities
No receiver or shadowing un-certainties
Effects of degrading factors mitigated
Primary User’ interference reduced
Cooperative Detection Challenges
Implementation Complexity
Constrained Resources
Primary user un-certainty un-resolved

SPECTRUM
 Interference Based Detection

Interference Temperature Model [10]

SPECTRUM
 Opportunities and Challenges of
Interference Based Detection
Opportunities
Focus on primary receiver rather than primary
transmitter
Frequency parameters of choice can be
utilised
Challenge
Receiver temperature detection
Due to interference power constraints, the
underlay techniques can only be employed for
short range communications

SPECTRUM
 Few Generalised
Spectrum Sensing Challenges
Multi user environment
Interference temperature measurement
Speed of detection etc.

SPECTRUM
Spectrum Allocation
Spectrum Allocation
Section – III
Spectrum Allocation

SPECTRU
M
Spectrum Analysis
Channel capacity
Primary user related information
xG user information

SPECTRU
M
Channel Capacity
Path Loss

Spectrum
Analysis
Wireless Link Layer
Link Layer Delay
Noise Info
User Related Information
(Primary and xG Users)
Interference

Spectrum
Analysis
Holding Time
User Transmission Parameters
Spectrum Analysis Challenges
and Opportunities
Challenges

Spectrum
Analysis
Heterogeneous Spectrum Sensing
Non Cooperative Primary and xG users
Varying Transmission Parameters
Real Time Analysis
Delays in Processing
Opportunities
 Spectrum Decision
Spectrum management
Spectrum mobility
Spectrum sharing
User related info

SPECTRU
M
Spectrum Management
Decision Model
Multiple Spectrum decision
Reduced Transmission Power
Cooperation with reconfiguration
Heterogeneous Spectrum

SPECTRU
M
Spectrum Mobility
 Introduction
 Challenges
Latency
Suitable Algorithm
Appearance of a Primary User
Vertical and Inter-Cell Handoff Scheme
Suitable Threshold for Handoff
Spectrum Mobility in Time Domain
Spectrum Mobility in Space
 Opportunities
Prioritised White Space
Soft and Hard Handoff

SPECTRU
M
Spectrum Sharing
 Architecture Based Classification
Centralised or Distributed
Challenges and Opportunities
 Access Behaviour Classification
Cooperative and Non-cooperative Sharing
Challenges and Opportunities
 Access Technology Classification
Overlay and Underlay Techniques
Challenges and Opportunities
 Generalised Spectrum Sharing Challenges
Common control Channel
Dynamic radio range
Spectrum Unit

SPECTRU
M
Future of Cognitive Radios
Future of Cognitive Radios
Section IV
Cognitive Radio Advantages
 All of the benefits of software defined radio
 Improved link performance
 Adapt away from bad channels
 Increase data rate on good channels
 Improved spectrum utilization
 Fill in unused spectrum
 Move away from over occupied spectrum
 New business propositions
 High speed internet in rural areas
 High data rate application networks (e.g., Video-
conferencing)
 Significant interest from FCC, DoD
 Possible use in TV band refarming
Cognitive Radio Drawbacks
 All the software radio drawbacks
 Significant research to realize
 Information collection and modeling
 Decision processes
 Learning processes
 Hardware support
 Regulatory concerns
 Loss of control
 Fear of undesirable adaptations
 Need some way to ensure that adaptations yield
desirable networks
How can CR improve spectrum
utilization?
Allocate the frequency usage in a network
Assist secondary markets with frequency
use, implemented by mutual agreements
Negotiate frequency use between users
Provide automated frequency coordination
Enable unlicensed users when spectrum not
in use
Overcome incompatibilities among existing
communication services
Potential Applications of CR
Leased networks
Military usage
Emergency situations
Mesh networks
Licensed user may enhance its performance
Improving UWB transmission by avoiding
NBI
Jeffery H Reed and Wills G Worcester
 Conclusion
Conclusion
Spectrum Sensing and Allocation Techniques for
Cognitive Radios