Mixed Layer Depth (MLD) is defined as the depth

where density has increased from its surface value

by 0.125.

Isothermal Layer Depth (ILD) is defined as the depth
at which temperature decreases by 0.5
o
C from SST.
The layer in between ILD and MLD is called the
barrier layer [BL=ILD - MLD ]
BL forms a barrier to entrainment and turbulent
mixing of cold thermocline water into the mixed
layer and inhibits the downward mixing of
momentum
The region of maximum gradient
in density is called pycnocline.
If the density gradient is due to
salinity (rather than temperature),
the corresponding region is
called halocline.
Temperature gradient below 1500 m (db) is very small

The region of maximum gradient (vertical) in
temperature is called thermocline.
N
2
=gE, where
is the stability parameter
Richardson number
2
2
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
z
u
N
Ri
is a measure of relative importance of mechanical and
density effects in the water column

Turbulent mixing takes place for low Ri (< 0.25)
Reynolds (Re) number is defined as the ratio
of non-linear (inertial) term to frictional
terms.

Rossby number (Ro) is defined as the ratio of
non-linear (inertial) term to Coriolis term

Ekman number is the ratio of frictional term to
Coriolis term
Boundary currents
Boundary currents are ocean currents with
dynamics determined by the presence of a
coastline, and fall into two distinct categories:
western boundary currents and eastern boundary
currents.
Eastern boundary currents are relatively
shallow, broad and slow-flowing. They are found
on the eastern side of oceanic basins (adjacent to
the western coasts of continents). Subtropical
eastern boundary currents flow equatorward,
transporting cold water from higher latitudes to
lower latitudes; Eg. Benguela Current, Peru
Current, and California Current. Coastal upwelling
brings nutrient-rich water into eastern boundary current
regions, making them productive areas of the ocean.
Western boundary currents are warm, deep,
narrow, and fast flowing currents that form on the west
side of ocean basins due to western intensification. They
carry warm water from the tropics poleward. Eg. Gulf
Stream, Agulhas Current, and Kuroshio current.

Western intensification is the intensification of
the western arm of an oceanic current. The trade
winds blow westward in the tropics, and the westerlies
blow eastward at mid-latitudes. This wind pattern
applies a stress to the subtropical ocean surface with
negative curl in the northern hemisphere and a
positive curl in the southern hemisphere. The
resulting transport is equatorward.
Because of conservation of potential vorticity, this
equatorward transport is balanced by a narrow,
intense poleward current, which flows along the
western boundary of the ocean basin, allowing the
vorticity introduced by coastal friction to balance the
vorticity input of the wind.

It is because of western intensification that the
currents on the western boundary of a basin (such
as the Gulf Stream, on the western side of the
Atlantic Ocean) are stronger than those on the
eastern boundary (such as the California Current,
on the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean).


Vorticity conservation and idealized experiments
e.g. increase D, change the abs. & rel. vorticity.
Topographic steering
In the interior of the ocean, for large-scale
processes, relative vorticity is negligible compared
to planetary vorticity.
In consequence, conservation of potential vorticity
becomes f/D=constant
For instance, if a water column stretches (D
increases) then f must increase in magnitude, the
water must move poleward.
If a water column pass over a trough in the sea
bottom, it deflects poleward and conversely for
ridge as it contracts.
The deflection of the flow required to keep f/D
constant is called as topographic steering.
Forces:
Primary which cause motion
e.g. gravitation, wind stress, atmospheric pressure,
seismic
Secondary which result from motion
e.g. Coriolis force, friction
Motion:
Thermohaline, wind driven, tidal currents, tsunami,
turbulent motions resulting from velocity shear,
various motions such as internal waves, gravity
waves, Rossby or planetary waves etc.
Classification of forces and motions
Frictionless Motion Inertial and
Geostrophic Flow
Inertial flow develops after the relaxation of
a forcing agent (e.g. wind) that produces a
motion. The only acceleration that modifies
this motion is the Coriolis acceleration.
When the wind stops, the wind-induced
current will be modified by Coriolis
acceleration. Hence the assumptions
involved in the inertial motion are
frictionless flow, homogeneous fluid with
no sea surface slopes (negligible pressure
gradients), no vertical motion.


This means that the motion is described by a circle of
radius r, i.e., u
2
+ v
2
= r . The motion is clockwise in the
northern hemisphere at the constant speed. The trajectory
of inertial motions maintains its circular shape of radius r
due to the centripetal acceleration, which is provided by
the Coriolis acceleration.
The inertial period at the poles is minimum (12 hrs)
because the Coriolis acceleration is maximum. The
period T
i
increases towards the equator. It equals 24
hrs at a latitude of 30 and is 137 hrs at 5
o

A drifting buoy set in
motion by strong
westerly winds in the
Baltic Sea in July 1969.
When the wind has
decreased the uppermost
water layers of the
oceans tend to follow
approximately inertia
circles due to the Coriolis
effect.
Geostrophic current: The balance between
the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient
force is called geostrophic balance, and the
corresponding flow is known as geostrophic
current. Compared to movement on a non-
rotating earth, where the flow crosses
isobars from high to low pressure,
geostrophic flow is characterized by
movement along isobars.
Geopotential distance is the distance
between two isobaric surfaces located at
depths z
1
and z
2
. The work required to raise a
water parcel of mass M by a distance dz
against gravity is Mgdz. The change of
geopotential is the potential energy per unit
mass gained by the parcel.

Concept of geopotential
. tan
) (
1 2
2
1
2
1
, 0 , 35 1 2 1 2
2
1
2
1
2
1
levels two the between ce dis al geopotenti the called is
dp dp z z g
dp dz g d
std
p
u u
Au Au =
= = u u
= = u
} }
} } }
o o
o
dw = M g dz is the amount of work done (=potential energy
gained) in raising a mass M through a vertical distance dz.

M d = dw = M g dz
d = g dz (potential energy change / unit mass)
= - dp

The first term is the standard geopotential distance and
the second term is geopotential anomaly
d = g dz=9.8 JKg
-1
for dz = 1m
So for convenience oceanographers have used
dynamic metre as a unit of geopotential

So 1 dyn m = 10 JKg
-1
An isobaric surface is a surface on which the
pressure is the same everywhere.
Geopotential surface is the surface of same
geopotential, the acceleration due to gravity is
perpendicular everywhere in this surface.

It is a level surface where no motion will occur.
In the ocean, barotropic conditions are those in
which isobaric surfaces and isopycnal surfaces are
parallel and they form an angle with respect to
geopotential surfaces. If a geopotential surface is
parallel to an isobaric surface, then there is no
motion.
Barotropic ocean
Barotropic ocean
If points 1 and 2 are on
an isobaric surface at
a depth z, and that the
isobaric surface is
parallel to a
geopotential surface.
Because of isobaric
and geopotential
surfaces being parallel
at one level, there is
no fluid motion along
that level. This level is
called the level of no
motion.
Assume that we can measure
the bottom pressure at two pts
1,2 and the sea level is not
parallel to a geopotential
| tan sin 2 g V = O
( ) ( ) | |
2 4 1 3
2 1 2 1
2 2
1 1
) tan (tan ) ( sin 2
tan sin 2
tan sin 2
z z z z
L
g
g V V
g V
g V
=
= O
= O
= O
|
|
|
=L
Baroclinic ocean
The geopotential distance
(J/kg or m
2
/s
2
) is the value we have
to determine between given
depths (z
1
and z
2
) in the water
column so that we can calculate
the baroclinic pressure gradients
between stations. To do that, we
have to integrate it between z
1

and z
2
Barotropic and Baroclinic Flow
If the ocean were homogeneous with constant
density, then constant-pressure surfaces
would always be parallel to the sea surface,
and the geostrophic velocity would be
independent of depth. In this case the relative
velocity is zero, and hydrographic data cannot be
used to measure the geostrophic current. If
density varies with depth, but not with horizontal
distance, the constant-pressure surfaces are
always parallel to the sea surface and the levels of
constant density, the isopycnal surfaces. In this
case also, the relative flow is zero. Both cases are
examples of barotropic flow.
Barotropic flow occurs when levels of constant
pressure in the ocean are always parallel to the
surfaces of constant density.
Baroclinic flow occurs when levels of constant
pressure are inclined to surfaces of constant
density. In this case, density varies with depth
and horizontal position.
Baroclinic flow varies with depth, and the
relative current can be calculated from
hydrographic data.
In general, the variation of flow in the vertical
can be decomposed into a barotropic
component (independent of depth), and a
baroclinic component (varies with depth).
Limitations of the Geostrophic Equations
Geostrophic currents cannot evolve with time
because the balance ignores acceleration of the
flow. Acceleration dominates if the horizontal
dimensions are less than roughly 50 km and times
are less than a few days. Acceleration is negligible
(but not zero) over longer times and distances.

The geostrophic balance does not apply within
about 2

of the equator where the Coriolis force

goes to zero because sin 0.

The geostrophic balance ignores the influence of
friction.
Mean geopotential anomaly relative to the 1,000 dbar surface
in the Pacificbased on observations. Height of the anomaly is
in geopotential centimeters. If the velocity at 1,000 dbar were
zero, the map would be the surface topography of the Pacific
Wyrtki (1979)
depth z increases with depth
Hydrostatic eqn.
Steric height
h(z
1
,z
2
) measures
variations in the vertical
distance between
two surfaces of constant
pressure
is the specific volume anomaly
is the dynamic height (gh)
The Geoid: The level surface that corresponds
to the surface of an ocean at rest is a special
surface, the geoid.
To a first approximation, the geoid is an
ellipsoid that corresponds to the surface of a
rotating, homogeneous fluid in solid-body
rotation, which means that the fluid has no
internal flow.
To a second approximation, the geoid differs
from the ellipsoid because of local variations
in gravity. The deviations are called geoid
undulations.The maximum amplitude of the
undulations is roughly 60 m.
To a third approximation, the geoid deviates
from the sea surface because the ocean is
not at rest. The deviation of sea level from
the geoid is defined to be the topography.

The oceans topography is caused by tides, heat
content of the water, and ocean surface currents.
The maximum amplitude of the topography is
roughly 1 m. Geoid undulations are caused by
local variations in gravity due to the uneven
distribution of mass at the sea floor. Seamounts
have an excess of mass because they are more
dense than water. They produce an upward bulge
in the geoid (see below). Trenches have a
deficiency of mass. They produce a downward
deflection of the geoid. Thus the geoid is closely
related to sea-floor topography.

Difference between upwelling and entrainment
The surface describing the base of the mixed layer
is not a material surface, therefore allows a mass
flux across it. This flux is defined as entrainment
(if upward) or detrainment (if downward). But
since this surface is not at a constant depth in
space nor time, the entrainment is not a vertical
velocity. Vertical motion of water relative to a geo-
centric coordinate system is called upwelling (or
downwelling). As the mixed layer is considered as
vertically homogeneous, only entrainment (not
upwelling or downwelling) changes SST.
Upwelling can make entrainment far more effective
or likely, but until cold water is entrained into the
mixed layer, the SST will not be affected.
Double diffusion
The water column can be unstable even if there
are no currents. The instability occurs because
the molecular diffusion of heat is about 100 times
faster than the molecular diffusion of salt.
Warm salty over colder less salty - salt fingering

Colder less salty over warm salty - diffusive convection
Cold salty over warmer less salty - Always
statically unstable.
Warmer less salty over cold salty - Always
stable and double diffusion diffuses the
interface between the two layers.
Double diffusion mixes ocean water, in
some cases 10 times faster than turbulent
mixing.
Molecular diffusion of heat is much faster
than the diffusion of salt. This leads to a
double-diffusion instability which modifies
the density distribution in the water column
in many regions of the ocean.
Ekman spiral
The Wind Driven Circulation
Observations revealed that
Where D
E
is Ekman layer depth
U
10
is wind speed at 10m
V
0
is surface current
Ekman mass transport
Ekman transport:
Sverdrups balance
Sverdrup integrated these equations from the
surface to a depth D equal to or greater than the
depth at which the horizontal pressure gradient
becomes zero.









Depth-integrated Sverdrup transport applied
globally using the wind stress from Hellerman and
Rosenstein (1983). Contour interval is 10 Sverdrups.
After Tomczak andGodfrey (1994)
E
E
f V
f X k
X k V
e |
t e
| t
=

V =
V =
by given is transport Sverdrup
/ ) .(
is layer Ekman
the of base the at velocity pumping Ekman
/ ) .(
: transport Sverdrup integrated Vertically
The northward mass transport of wind driven
currents is equal to the curl of the wind stress.
The instantaneous curves that are everywhere
tangent to the direction of the vectors are called
the stream lines of the flow. If the flow is unsteady,
the pattern of stream lines change with time.
The trajectory of a fluid particle, the path followed
by a Lagrangian drifter,is called the path line. The
path line is the same as the stream line for steady
flow, and they are different for an unsteady flow.
Two-dimensional, incompressible flows can be
simplified by using the stream function as:


The stream function is often used because it
is a scalar from which the vector velocity
field can be calculated. This leads to simpler
equations for some flows.
Stream functions are also useful for
visualizing the flow. At each instant, the flow
is parallel to lines of constant . Thus if the
flow is steady, the lines of constant stream
function are the paths followed by water
parcels.

Volume transport
between stream
lines in a two-
dimensional,
steady flow. After
Kundu (1990)

the volume rate of flow between
two stream lines 1 and 2 is
equal to 1 2 (or d).
v dx + (u) dy = /x dx /y dy = d
Stommels Theory of Western Boundary Currents
Stommel, 1948
Considered a rectangular ocean of constant depth,
one side of the equator, wind speed varies with latitude as
below
f zero or constant f varying linearly with latitude
Munks solution
Where A is eddy viscosity
coefficient for lateral friction,
is the biharmonic operator
Vorticity from lateral stress Planetary vorticity Wind stress curl =0
Sverdrup, Stommel, and Munk showed that
realistic currents can be calculated only if the
Coriolis parameter varies with latitude.
Sverdrup showed that the curl of the wind stress
drives a northward mass transport, and that this
can be used to calculate currents in the ocean
away from western boundary currents.
Stommel showed that western boundary currents
are required for flow to circulate around an ocean
basin when the Coriolis parameter varies with
latitude.
Munk showed how to combine the two solutions
to calculate the winddriven geostrophic circulation
in an ocean basin. In all cases, the current is
driven by the curl of the wind stress.
Walker Circulation

How the mean state of
the ocean and the
atmosphere change
during El Nino and La
Nina are schematically
shown
Reversal of Walker Circulation

SST anomaly pattern
associated with El Nino
Sea-level pressure (SLP)
variations associated with
El Nino
See-saw of SLP between
eastern Pacific and
Indonesia associated
with El Nino is Southern
Oscillation (SO)
Nino-3
*
*
Normalized time series of SST anomalies over Nino 3 area (blue) and Southern
Oscillation Index (SOI, red).
Evolution of SST anomalies between Jan 1997 and Dec 1998
Basin-wide
wintertime surface
warming is observed in
the Indian Ocean
during El Nio years
(Chowdary and
Gnanaseelan,2007).
This warming ,
known as Indian
Ocean Basin mode,
lags behind Pacific
maximum by almost a
season and persist up
to following summer
[Nigam and Shen,
1993; Klein et al.,
1999; Liu and
Alexander, 2007, Xie et
al, 2009].
NDJ(0)
Correlation between NDJ(0) Nino3.4 index
and Indo-Pacific SSTA
Lead-lag correlation between NDJ(0) Nino3.4 index
with TIO (20S20N, 40100E)

TIO
(20S20N, 40100E)
In SWIO warming
the ocean dynamics
is more important
than surface fluxes
(Klein et al,1999).

North Indian Ocean
warming during El
Nino shows a
peculiar double peak
structure (Du et
al,2009).
The Regional Variation In El Nino Induced Warming Over
Indian Ocean
The 1
st
peak associated with mature phase of El Nino mainly due to
Atmospheric Bridge forcing ( Klein et al 1999).
(Courtesy : Du et al, 2009)
North Indian Ocean
The prolonged warming of SWIO warming excite antisymmetric C -
shape wind pattern over IO during spring, and persist up to June-July(1).

During winter this anomalous winds
intensify north-easterlies north trade
wind south of equator gives a
weakening of NIO warming due to
positive Wind Evaporation SST
feedback.

June-July(1) prevailing southwest
monsoonal wind relaxes and reduce
surface evaporation north of the
equator and induced the 2
nd
peak of
NIO warming .
Contrasting pattern of rainfall and surface wind anomalies
north and south of Equator (Kawamura et al. 2001; Wu et al.
2008; Xie et al. 2009; Du et al. 2009; Wu and Yeh 2010) evolved as
a leading mode of variability in MAM.
Spring Asymmetric Mode over TIO
EOF of precipitation
anomalies overlaid
with the surface
wind anomaly
regressed upon
respective
precipitation
principal component
(a and b). SST and
SLP anomalies
regressed with
precipitation PCs (c
and d).

The 1
st
mode of
variability in spring
Feb-Mar Apr-May
Change in the ElNino induced warming after mid-1970.
Xie et. (2010) showed changes in the TIO warming pattern in
the recent years.

The Correlation of the IO SST with Nino3.4 index is noticeably
different in the two epochs (1950-1976[epoch1] and 1977-
2003[epoch2]).

The TIO warming persists through JJA(1) after the regime shift.
Jan Apr Jun Aug Oct Dec Feb Apr Jun Aug Oct
Jan Apr Jun Aug Oct Dec Feb Apr Jun Aug Oct
Epoch1
Epoch2
24 month lead lag correlation between NDJ(0/1) Nio-3.4 index with BLT in
different seasons average over 5
o
S and 10
o
S.
In Epoch2 correlation is
significantly High.

Strong signature of
westward propagating
barrier layer in Epoch2
from September to next
Jun.
What triggers El Nino?
Still not fully understood
High heat content (deep thermocline) in
the equatorial region necessary but not
sufficient condition
Westerly wind bursts (few days
duration) associated with the Madden
Julian Oscillation may act as one trigger.
G. Vecchi
El Nino onset
Need high heat content in equatorial Pacific
Triggering by wind fluctuations (e.g. WWBs)
over central/western Pacific
Growth through Bjerknes positive feedback
mechanism
Theories for ENSO Oscillations
Delayed Oscillator (e.g. Battisti and
Hirst, 1989; Suarez and Schopf, 1988
Recharge/discharge theory (Jin,
1997)
Western Pacific Oscillator (e.g.
Weisberg, R. H., and C. Wang, 1997)
Advective-Reflective Oscillator (e.g.
Picaut et al, 1997)
Unified Oscillator (Wang, 2001 J Clim)


x
t
Battisti and Hirst, 1989;
Suarez and Schopf, 1988
Thermocline depth
Delayed Oscillator Theory
Westerly winds force
downwelling on Equator and
upwelling to North and South
=> Excites Kelvin and Rossby
waves
Source IRI: http://iri.columbia.edu/climate/ENSO/theory/
25 days
100 days 50 days
75 days
Upwelling
Rossby waves
Downwelling
Kelvin wave
125 days
275 days 175 days
225 days
Phase has reversed
Equatorial ocean waves offer a mechanism to
reverse the phase of perturbations to the
thermocline depth
Without further wind forcing waves eventually
decay
Thermocline depth perturbations influence SST in
the upwelling regions of central / eastern
equatorial Pacific => coupling to atmosphere
Bjerknes feedback + equatorial waves can
generate a self-sustaining oscillation
discharging
discharged
recharged
Recharge/Discharge
theory (Jin, 1997)
Prior to El Nino heat content in
equatorial region builds up
During El Nino heat is discharged
eastward and polewards

Source: A. Timmermann
Do we have air-sea interaction in the Indian
Ocean-monsoon region similar to El Nino in the
Pacific?

Recently, a mode of variability in the Indian
Ocean, known as the Indian Ocean Dipole
Mode is discovered that involves local air sea
interaction similar to ENSO.
(Saji et al. 1999, Nature,401, 360-363)
Positive Dipole Mode
Negative Dipole Mode
Indian
Pacific
Composite evolution of anomalous winds & SST during a typical DM event (based
on average of six events). Coherent evolution of east-west dipole structure of SST
and equatorial winds indicate that it is an ocean-atmosphere coupled mode.
In fall of 1997 the east-west
SST gradients reversed in the
tropical Indian Ocean.

A strong east-west dipole
type pattern of SST anomalies
(cold east and warm west)
together with strong easterly
surface wind anomalies in the
central equatorial IO were
seen.

Anomalous SST surface
winds were indicative of
unstable air-sea interactions

Easterly anomaly around
the eq. in the IO leads to
depression of thermocline
in the west and warming
Westerly anomaly around
the eq. in the Pacific leads
to depression of
thermocline in the east and
warming
Relation between Dipole Mode Index (DMI) and Equatorial Zonal Winds.
DMI: SSTA ave (50E-70E,10S-10N)-SSTA ave (90E-110E,15S-EQ)
UEQ: U ave (70E-90E,5S-5N)
Indication of air-sea interaction in the Indian Ocean
DMI: east-west SST variations
UEQ: zonal winds over central IO
A Positive Air-Sea Feedback off Sumatra in Summer
The air-sea coupled feedback associated with DM
An initial cold
anomaly in the east
IO
Decrease in
precipitation and
convective heating in
the east IO
Easterly zonal wind
anomaly in the
central equatorial IO
Upwelling Kelvin
waves propagate to
east Increase
cooling.
Downwelling Rossby
waves propagate to
the west, depress
thermocline, lead to
warming in the west
Increases
precipitation in the
western IO
Strengthens easterly
zonal winds in the
central IO
Depresses
thermocline in the
east IO
Global ocean circulation from
NASA ECCO simulation



http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xusdWPu
WAoU
Schematic representation of major currents and gyres
during winter monsoon (Jan/Feb)
Schott and McCreary, 2001
Schematic representation of major currents and gyres
during summer monsoon (Jul/Aug)
Wyrtki Jets (vertical structure) and its weakening during IOD years
OCT
NOV
Jan-Feb
Jul-Aug
Apr-May
Oct-Nov
Useful definitions/concepts
Annual mean of any field is the long term average
of it.
Seasonal mean is the long term average
corresponding to a particular season.
Monthly mean is the long term average
corresponding to a particular month.
Anomalies are the deviations of the fields from the
mean.
Interannual variability is the year to year
variability.
Intraseasonal variability is variability within a
season
Diurnal variability is variability within a day

April-May
October-November
Climatology El Nino
El Nino & IOD IOD
Climatology El Nino
IOD El Nino & IOD
Climatology & composites of wind,
zonal current and SST anomalies
El Nino induces a unique
circulation pattern in the fall
Wyrtki jet with eastward
anomalies west of 70
o
E and
westward anomalies to the east
of it and support strong
convection in the central
equatorial Indian Ocean.
Correlation between EOFs of current and precipitation
Observing Systems (Satellites, Buoys,
Argos, etc.)
Bucket temperature:
The temperature of surface waters has been
routinely measured at sea by putting a
mercury thermometer into a bucket which is
lowered into the water, letting it sit at a
depth of about a meter for a few minutes
until the thermometer comes to equilibrium,
then bringing it aboard and reading the
temperature before water in the bucket has
time to change temperature. The accuracy is
around 0.1C. This is a very common source
of direct surface temperature
measurements.

Advanced Very High Resolution
Radiometer:
The most commonly used instrument to
measure sea-surface temperature from
space is the Advanced Very High
Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR). The
instrument has been carried on all polar-
orbiting meteorological satellites operated
by NOAA since Tiros-N was launched in
1978. The instrument is a radiometer that
converts infrared radiation into electrical
signals.
Microwave radiometers: Can see through
clouds

New generation
observations
Temperature Buoys, Radiometer (infrared &
microwave), ARGO, CTD, XBT
Salinity ARGO, CTD, Soil Moisture and
Ocean Salinity (SMOS), Aquarius
Surface Winds QuikSCAT (scatterometer)
SSHA Altimeter (T/P, JASON, Altika)
Waves - Altimeter (T/P, JASON, Altika)
Currents Current Meter, ADCP
Chlrophyll - OCM

Flux measurements are still a real problem !
Oceanic Heat Budget
Q = Q
SW
+ Q
LW
+ Q
S
+ Q
L



The change in temperature T of the water is
related to change in energy E as

E = Cp m T

where m is the mass of water, and Cp is the specific
heat of sea water at constant pressure.

Cp 4000 J kg
1
C
1

What is heat budget ?
The sum of the heat fluxes into or out of a
volume of water is the heat budget.
The major terms in the budget at the sea
surface are:
Insolation Q
SW
, the flux of sunlight into the
sea;
Net Infrared Radiation Q
LW
, net flux of
infrared radiation from the sea;
Sensible Heat Flux Q
S
, the flux of heat out of
(in to) the sea due to conduction;
Latent Heat Flux Q
L
, the flux of heat carried
by evaporated water; and
Advection Q
V
, heat carried away by
currents.
Factors Influencing Insolation
Incoming solar radiation is primarily
determined by latitude, season, time of day,
and cloudiness. The polar regions are
heated less than the tropics, areas in winter
hemisphere are heated less than the same
area in summer, areas in early morning are
heated less than the same area at noon, and
cloudy days have less sun than sunny days.
The net infrared flux depends on:
Clouds thickness. The thicker the cloud
deck, the less heat escapes to space.
Cloud height, which determines the
temperature at which the cloud radiates
heat back to the ocean. The rate is
proportional to T
4
, where T is the
temperature of the radiating body in
Kelvins. High clouds are colder than low
clouds.
Atmospheric water-vapor content. The
more humid the atmosphere the less heat
escapes to space.
Water Temperature. The hotter the water
the more heat is radiated.
Ice and snow cover.
Latent heat flux is influenced primarily by
wind speed and relative humidity. High
winds and dry air evaporate much more
water than weak winds with relative
humidity near 100%.

Sensible heat flux is influenced by wind
speed and air-sea temperature difference.
High winds and large temperature
differences cause high sensible heat fluxes.






( )


) (
) ( ) (
0
c
b
h
e
p
h
a
p
y
T
v
x
T
u
h
T T
w
h c
F
h c
Q
t
T
c
c
c
c
c
c

=

Here, h is the mixed-layer thickness, c
p
is the volumetric heat
capacity of seawater,
T is the average mixed-layer temperature, and u and v are the
mixed-layer currents. Q
0
is the net surface heat flux,
corrected from the penetrative component at the bottom of
the mixed layer. F
-h
and T
-h
are respectively the turbulent heat
flux through the bottom of the mixed layer and temperature
just below the base of the mixed layer,
and w
e
is the entrainment velocity into the mixed layer.
(a) describes the effect of atmospheric heat fluxes,
(b) is the cooling by subsurface oceanic processes
(mixing, entrainment, upwelling),
(c) is the lateral temperature advection.
H is the vertical mixing length scale,
is the sea surface height anomaly, and
au is Rayleigh friction
Salinity budget
Momentum budget