Chapter 7 Introduction To SQL

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Chapter 7
Introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL)
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, and Management, Sixth Edition, Rob and Coronel
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In this chapter, you will learn:

The basic commands and functions of SQL
How to use SQL for data administration (to create tables, indexes, and views) How to use SQL for data manipulation (to add, modify, delete, and retrieve data)
How to use SQL to query a database to extract useful information

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 6th Edition, Rob & Coronel
Introduction to SQL
SQL functions fit into two broad categories: Data definition language
SQL includes commands to create
Database objects such as tables, indexes, and views Commands to define access rights to those database objects
Data manipulation language

Includes commands to insert, update, delete, and retrieve data within the database tables
Introduction to SQL (continued)

SQL is relatively easy to learn
Basic command set has a vocabulary of less than 100 words
Nonprocedural language
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) prescribes a standard SQL Several SQL dialects exist
SQL Data Definition Commands
Data Manipulation Commands
Data Definition Commands

Examine the simple database model and the database tables that will form the basis for the many SQL examples
Understand the data environment
The Database Model
Creating the Database

Two tasks must be completed
create the database structure create the tables that will hold the end-user data
First task
RDBMS creates the physical files that will hold the database Tends to differ substantially from one RDBMS to another
The Database Schema

Authentication
Process through which the DBMS verifies that only registered users are able to access the database Log on to the RDBMS using a user ID and a password created by the database administrator
Schema
Group of database objectssuch as tables and indexesthat are related to each other
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Data Types
Data type selection is usually dictated by the nature of the data and by the intended use
Pay close attention to the expected use of attributes for sorting and data retrieval purposes
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Some Common SQL Data Types
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Creating Table Structures

Use one line per column (attribute) definition Use spaces to line up the attribute characteristics and constraints Table and attribute names are capitalized NOT NULL specification UNIQUE specification Primary key attributes contain both a NOT NULL and a UNIQUE specification RDBMS will automatically enforce referential integrity for foreign keys Command sequence ends with a semicolon
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Other SQL Constraints

NOT NULL constraint
Ensures that a column does not accept nulls
UNIQUE constraint
Ensures that all values in a column are unique
DEFAULT constraint
Assigns a value to an attribute when a new row is added to a table
CHECK constraint
Validates data when an attribute value is entered
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SQL Indexes
When a primary key is declared, DBMS automatically creates a unique index Often need additional indexes Using the CREATE INDEX command, SQL indexes can be created on the basis of any selected attribute Composite index
Index based on two or more attributes Often used to prevent data duplication
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A Duplicated TEST Record
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Creating Table Structures - Example

Attribute (Field) Name EMP_NUM EMP_LNAME EMP_FNAME EMP_INITIAL Data Declaration INTEGER VARCHAR(15) VARCHAR(15) CHAR(1)
EMP_HIREDATE
JOB_CODE
DATE
CHAR(3)
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CREATE TABLE EMP( EMP_NUM INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, EMP_LNAME VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL, EMP_FNAME VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL, EMP_INITIAL CHAR(1), EMP_HIREDATE DATE, JOB_CODE CHAR(3) DEFAULT 000, FOREIGN KEY (JOB_CODE) REFERENCES JOB);
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CREATE TABLE EMP( EMP_NUM INTEGER NOT NULL, EMP_LNAME VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL, EMP_FNAME VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL, EMP_INITIAL CHAR(1), EMP_HIREDATE DATE, JOB_CODE CHAR(3) DEFAULT 000, PRIMARY KEY (EMP_NUM), FOREIGN KEY (JOB_CODE) REFERENCES JOB), CONSTRAINT JAYZSA UNIQUE (EMP_NUM);
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Data Manipulation Commands

Adding table rows Saving table changes Listing table rows
Updating table rows

Restoring table contents
Deleting table rows

Inserting table rows with a select subquery
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Common SQL Data Manipulation Commands
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A Data View and Entry Form
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Saving Table Changes

Changes made to table contents are not physically saved on disk until
Database is closed Program is closed COMMIT command is used
Syntax
COMMIT [WORK]
Will permanently save any changes made to any table in the database
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Listing Table Rows

SELECT
Used to list contents of table
Syntax
SELECT columnlist FROM tablename
Columnlist represents one or more attributes, separated by commas Asterisk can be used as wildcard character to list all attributes
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Updating Table Rows

UPDATE
Modify data in a table
Syntax
UPDATE tablename SET columnname = expression [, columname = expression] [WHERE conditionlist];
If more than one attribute is to be updated in the row, separate corrections with commas
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Updating Table Rows - Example
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Updating Table Rows - Example

UPDATE SET WHERE
UPDATE SET WHERE UPDATE SET WHERE
EMP EMP_PCT = 3.85 EMP_NUM = '103';

EMP EMP_PCT = 5.00 EMP_NUM = 101; EMP EMP_PCT = 8.00 EMP_NUM = 102;
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Restoring Table Contents

ROLLBACK
Used restore the database to its previous condition Only applicable if COMMIT command has not been used to permanently store the changes in the database
Syntax
ROLLBACK;
COMMIT and ROLLBACK only work with data manipulation commands that are used to add, modify, or delete table rows
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Deleting Table Rows

DELETE
Deletes a table row
Syntax
DELETE FROM tablename [WHERE conditionlist ];
WHERE condition is optional If WHERE condition is not specified, all rows from the specified table will be deleted
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Deleting Table Rows Example

DELETE WHERE AND AND AND FROM EMP EMP_LNAME = 'Smithfield' EMP_FNAME = 'William' EMP_HIREDATE = '22-June-02' JOB_CODE = '500';
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Inserting Table Rows - Example
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Inserting Table Rows - Example

INSERT INTO EMP_1 VALUES (101, News, John, G, 08-Nov98, 502);
INSERT INTO EMP_1 VALUES (102, Senior, David, H, 12-Jul87, 501);
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Inserting Table Rows with a Select Subquery

INSERT
Inserts multiple rows from another table (source) Uses SELECT subquery
Query that is embedded (or nested) inside another query Executed first
Syntax
INSERT INTO tablename SELECT columnlist FROM tablename
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Inserting Table Rows with a Select Subquery - Example

INSERT INTO PART (PART_CODE, PART_DESCRIPT, PART_PRICE)
SELECT P_CODE, P_DESCRIPT, P_PRICE FROM PRODUCT;
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Selecting Rows with Conditional Restrictions

Select partial table contents by placing restrictions on rows to be included in output
Add conditional restrictions to the SELECT statement, using WHERE clause
Syntax
SELECT columnlist FROM tablelist [ WHERE conditionlist ] ;
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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes for VENDOR Code 21344
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE, V_CODE FROM PRODUCT WHERE V_CODE = 21344;
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The Microsoft Access QBE and its SQL
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Comparison Operators
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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes for VENDOR Codes Other than 21344
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE, V_CODE FROM PRODUCT WHERE V_CODE <> 21344;
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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes with a P_PRICE Restriction
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_ONHAND, P_MIN, P_PRICE FROM PRODUCT WHERE P_PRICE <= 10;
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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: The ASCII Code Effect
SELECT P_CODE, P_DESCRIPT, P_ONHAND, P_MIN, P_PRICE FROM PRODUCT WHERE P_CODE < 1558QW1;
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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: Date Restriction
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_ONHAND, P_MIN, P_PRICE, P_INDATE FROM PRODUCT WHERE P_INDATE >= 20 Jan 2004;
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SELECT Statement with a Computed Column
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_ONHAND, P_PRICE, P_ONHAND * P_PRICE FROM PRODUCT;

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SELECT Statement with a Computed Column and an Alias
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_ONHAND, P_PRICE, P_ONHAND * P_PRICE AS TOTVALUE FROM PRODUCT;

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Arithmetic Operators: The Rule of Precedence

Perform operations within parentheses
Perform power operations Perform multiplications and divisions Perform additions and subtractions
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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: The Logical OR
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE, V_CODE FROM PRODUCT WHERE V_CODE = 21344 OR V_CODE = 24288;
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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: The Logical AND
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE, V_CODE FROM PRODUCT WHERE PRICE < 50 AND P_INDATE > 15 Jan 2004;
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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: The Logical AND and OR
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE, V_CODE FROM PRODUCT WHERE (P_PRICE < 50 AND P_INDATE > 15 Jan 2004) OR V_CODE = 24288;
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Special Operators
BETWEEN
Used to check whether attribute value is within a range
IS NULL
Used to check whether attribute value is null
LIKE
Used to check whether attribute value matches a given string pattern
IN
Used to check whether attribute value matches any value within a value list
EXISTS
Used to check if a subquery returns any rows
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Advanced Data Definition Commands

All changes in the table structure are made by using the ALTER command
Followed by a keyword that produces specific change Three options are available
ADD
MODIFY
DROP
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Changing a Columns Data Type

ALTER can be used to change data type
Some RDBMSs (such as Oracle) do not permit changes to data types unless the column to be changed is empty
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Changing a Columns Data Characteristics

Use ALTER to change data characteristics
If the column to be changed already contains data, changes in the columns characteristics are permitted if those changes do not alter the data type
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Adding or Dropping a Column

Use ALTER to add a column
Do not include the NOT NULL clause for new column
Use ALTER to drop a column

Some RDBMSs impose restrictions on the deletion of an attribute
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The Effect of Data Entry into the New P_SALECODE Column
UPDATE PRODUCT SET P_SALECODE = 1 WHERE P_CODE = 1546-QQ2;
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Update of the P_SALECODE Column in Multiple Data Rows
UPDATE PRODUCT SET P_SALECODE = 1 WHERE P_CODE = 2232/QWE OR P_CODE = 2232/QTY;
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The Effect of Multiple Data Updates in the PRODUCT Table (MS Access)
UPDATE PRODUCT SET P_SALECODE = 2 WHERE P_INDATE < 25-Dec-2003; UPDATE PRODUCT SET P_SALECODE = 1 WHERE P_INDATE >= 16-Jan-2004; AND P_INDATE <= 10-Feb-2004;
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Copying Parts of Tables

SQL permits copying contents of selected table columns so that the data need not be reentered manually into newly created table(s)
First create the PART table structure Next add rows to new PART table using PRODUCT table rows
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PART Attributes Copied from the PRODUCT Table
INSERT INTO PART (PART_CODE, PART_DESCRIPT, PART_PRICE) SELECT P_CODE, P_DESCRIPT, P_PRICE FROM PRODUCT;
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Advanced Select Queries

SQL provides useful functions
Count Find minimum and maximum values Calculate averages
SQL allows the user to limit queries to only those entries having no duplicates or entries whose duplicates may be grouped
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Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: Ordered by (Ascending) P_PRICE
SELECT P_CODE, P_DESRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE FROM PRODUCT ORDER BY P_PRICE;

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Partial Listing of EMPLOYEE Table Contents
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Telephone List Query Results
SELECT EMP_LNAME, EMP_LNAME, EMP_FNAME, EMP_INITIAL, EMP_AREACODE, EMP_PHONE FROM EMPLOYEE ORDER BY EMP_LNAME, EMP_FNAME, EMP_INITIAL;
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A Query Based on Multiple Restrictions
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, V_CODE, P_INDATE, P_PROCE FROM PRODUCT WHERE P_INDATE < 21Jan-2004 AND P_PRICE <= 50.00 ORDER BY V_CODE, P_PROCE DESC;
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A Listing of Distinct (Different) V_CODE Values in the PRODUCT Table
SELECT DISTINCT V_CODE FROM PRODUCT;
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Some Basic SQL Aggregate Functions
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COUNT Function Output Examples
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MAX and MIN Function Output Examples
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The Total Value of All Items in the PRODUCT Table
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AVG Function Output Examples
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GROUP BY Clause Output Examples
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Incorrect and Correct Use of the GROUP BY Clause
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An Application of the HAVING Clause
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Joining Database Tables

Ability to combine (join) tables on common attributes is most important distinction between a relational database and other databases
Join is performed when data are retrieved from more than one table at a time
Join is generally composed of an equality comparison between the foreign key and the primary key of related tables
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Creating Links Through Foreign Keys
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The Results of a Join
SELECT PRODUCT.P_DESCRIPT, PRODUCT.P_PRICE, VENDOR.V_NAME, VENDOR.V_CONTACT, VENDOR.V_AREACODE, VENDOR.V_PHONE FROM PRODUCT, VENDOR WHERE PRODUCT.V_CODE = VENDOR.V_CODE;
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An Ordered and Limited Listing After a JOIN
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_PRICE, V_NAME, V_CONTACT, V_AREACODE, V_PHONE FROM PRODUCT, VENDOR WHERE PRODUCT.V_CODE = VENDOR.V_CODE AND P_INDATE > 15-Jan2004;
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The Contents of the EMP Table
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Using an Alias to Join a Table to Itself
SELECT E.EMP_NUM, E.EMP_LNAME, E.EMP_MGR, M.EMP_LNAME, FROM EMP E, EMP M WHERE E.EMP_MGR = M.EMP_NUM ORDER BY E.EMP_MGR;
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Converting an ER Model into a Database Structure

Requires following specific rules that govern such a conversion
Decisions made by the designer to govern data integrity are reflected in the foreign key rules Implementation decisions vary according to the problem being addressed
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The Ch06_Artist Database ERD and Tables
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A Data Dictionary for the Ch06_Artist Database
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A Summary of Foreign Key Rules
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Summary
SQL commands can be divided into two overall categories:
Data definition language commands Data manipulation language commands
Basic data definition commands allow you to create tables, indexes, and views Many SQL constraints can be used with columns Aggregate functions
Special functions that perform arithmetic computations over a set of rows
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Summary (continued)
ORDER BY clause
Used to sort output of a SELECT statement Can sort by one or more columns and use either an ascending or descending order
Join output of multiple tables with SELECT statement Natural join uses join condition to match only rows with equal values in specified columns Right outer join and left outer join used to select rows that have no matching values in other related table
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Chapter 7 Introduction To SQL

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7

In this chapter, you will learn:

How to use SQL to query a database to extract useful information

Data manipulation language

Introduction to SQL (continued)

SQL Data Definition Commands

Data Manipulation Commands

Data Definition Commands

The Database Model

Creating the Database

The Database Schema

Some Common SQL Data Types

Creating Table Structures

Other SQL Constraints

A Duplicated TEST Record

Creating Table Structures - Example

Creating Table Structures - Example

Creating Table Structures - Example

Data Manipulation Commands

Updating table rows

Deleting table rows

Common SQL Data Manipulation Commands

A Data View and Entry Form

Saving Table Changes

Listing Table Rows

Updating Table Rows

Updating Table Rows - Example

Updating Table Rows - Example

EMP EMP_PCT = 3.85 EMP_NUM = '103';

Restoring Table Contents

Deleting Table Rows

Deleting Table Rows Example

Inserting Table Rows - Example

Inserting Table Rows - Example

Inserting Table Rows with a Select Subquery

Inserting Table Rows with a Select Subquery - Example

Selecting Rows with Conditional Restrictions

Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes for VENDOR Code 21344

The Microsoft Access QBE and its SQL

Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes with a P_PRICE Restriction

Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: The ASCII Code Effect

Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: Date Restriction

SELECT Statement with a Computed Column

SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_ONHAND, P_PRICE, P_ONHAND * P_PRICE FROM PRODUCT;

SELECT Statement with a Computed Column and an Alias

SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_ONHAND, P_PRICE, P_ONHAND * P_PRICE AS TOTVALUE FROM PRODUCT;

Arithmetic Operators: The Rule of Precedence

Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: The Logical OR

Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: The Logical AND

Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: The Logical AND and OR

Advanced Data Definition Commands

Changing a Columns Data Type

Changing a Columns Data Characteristics

Adding or Dropping a Column

Use ALTER to drop a column

The Effect of Data Entry into the New P_SALECODE Column

UPDATE PRODUCT SET P_SALECODE = 1 WHERE P_CODE = 1546-QQ2;

Update of the P_SALECODE Column in Multiple Data Rows

UPDATE PRODUCT SET P_SALECODE = 1 WHERE P_CODE = 2232/QWE OR P_CODE = 2232/QTY;

Copying Parts of Tables

PART Attributes Copied from the PRODUCT Table

Advanced Select Queries

Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: Ordered by (Ascending) P_PRICE