MEEN 5330 1

MEEN 5330 Continuum Mechanics,

all references from Continuum Mechanics by Frederick unless noted

Overview of lecture
1. SRI survey, and quiz
2. See web sites
3. Start lecture on Elasticity / Solid Mechanics.

Generalized Hookes Law
Modified by L. Peel
L. Narasimhulu Tammineni
Javier S. Daz
MEEN 5330 2
Continuum Mechanics Web References
Best reference, Good book, but cant print
MEEN 5330 3
Continuum Mechanics Web References contd
Aerodynamics-related notes with demonstration of a FOIL-sim program,
http://www1.esc.auckland.ac.nz/People/Staff/Archer/Courses/ENGSCI342.html

Undergraduate Continuum Mechanics with a Civil Engineering bent
http://www.engr.usask.ca/classes/CE/311/

Short Course Notes (gives some good examples)
http://geolab.mechan.ntua.gr/teaching/lectnotes.html#engcm

MEEN 5330 4
Chapter 5, Solid Mechanics
Homework Assignment:
1. See end of lecture

Solid Mechanics Linear Elasticity
Study of solids following a certain elastic law, typically the material
is assumed to have a linear stress-strain curve in the region of
interest, or in other words, for axial tension, the o=Ec, where E is
the slope of the stress-strain curve.
MEEN 5330 5
Equation of Motion / Equilibrium
Assuming that displacements are small, where = density, u
i
is
displacement, and f
i
are the body forces, then:
Lets look at the equations of equilibrium from Ch. 2:
Note that the only difference is the energy from movement. If we
assume that the body is moving slowly, then we can use the equations of
equilibrium.
MEEN 5330 6
Equilibrium of stress and internal forces
MEEN 5330 7
Small Strain displacement & Compatibility
MEEN 5330 8
Constitutive Equations (stress & strain)
For a uni-axial stress-state:
MEEN 5330 9
Summary
MEEN 5330 10
Anisotropic Elastic Solids
MEEN 5330 11
Anisotropic Elastic Solids contd
MEEN 5330 12
Anisotropic Elastic Solids contd
MEEN 5330 13
Converting a stress matrix to a vector
MEEN 5330 14
Converting a stress matrix to a vector contd
MEEN 5330 15
Stress and Strain
MEEN 5330 16
Special Cases
What is different here?
MEEN 5330 17
Special Cases contd
What is different here?
MEEN 5330 18
Special Cases contd
What is different here?
MEEN 5330 19
Generalized Hookes Law
MEEN 5330

Modified by L. Peel
L. Narasimhulu Tammineni
Javier S. Daz
MEEN 5330 20
Definition
In the 1-D case, for a linear elastic material the stress
is proportional to the strain , that is =E, where the
proportionality factor E is called modulus of elasticity, which
is a property of the material.
The relation =E is known as Hookes law.
Since we consider that the continuum material is a
linear elastic material, we introduce the generalized Hookes
Law in Cartesian coordinates
kl ijkl ij
l C = o (1)
MEEN 5330 21
Definition (Cont)
Hookes law is a statement that the stress is proportional to the
gradient of the deformation occurring in the material.
These equations assume that a linear relationship exists between the
components of stress tensor and strain tensor.
Such relations are referred to as a set of constitutive equations. They
relate stress and strain, because they depend on the material behavior,
whether it be an elastic or plastic solid or a viscous fluid.
In this presentation we will only consider the constitutive equations for
an elastic solid.
MEEN 5330 22
Constitutive Equations
They are applicable for materials exhibiting small deformations when
subjected to external forces.
The 81 constants C
ijkl
are called the elastic stiffness of the material and
are the components of a Cartesian tensor of the fourth order.
It is the elastic stiffness tensor which characterizes the mechanical
properties of a particular anisotropic Hookean elastic solid.
The anisotropy of the material is represented by the fact that the
components of C
ijkl
are in general different for different choices of
coordinate axes. If the body is homogeneous, that is, the mechanical
properties are the same for every particle of the body, then C
ijkl
are
constants (i.e. independent of position).
We shall only study homogeneous bodies.
Due to the symmetry of the stress and strain tensor we find that elastic
stiffness tensor must satisfy the relation
C
ijkl=
C
jikl=
C
ijlk=
C
jilk

and consequently only 36 of the 81 constants are actually independent.
MEEN 5330 23
Material Symmetries
The generalized Hookes law can be expressed in a form where the 36
independent constants can be examined in more detail under special
material symmetries.



(2)

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
6
5
4
3
2
1
66 65 64 63 62 61
56 55 54 53 52 51
46 45 44 43 42 41
36 35 34 33 32 31
26 25 24 23 22 21
16 15 14 13 12 11
6
5
4
3
2
1
l
l
l
l
l
l
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
o
o
o
o
o
o
MEEN 5330 24
Material Symmetries


The 14 Bravais space lattices
P = Primitive or simple
I = Body-centered cubic
F = Face-center cubic
C = Base-centered cubic
MEEN 5330 25
Material Symmetries
For example, for the anisotropic case, starting with 36 constants C
ij
, but
of these are 6 where i=j. This leaves 30 where ij, but only half of
these are independent, since C
ij
= C
ji
. Therefore, for the general
anisotropic linear elastic solid there are 30/2+6=21 independent elastic
constants.
As a result of symmetry conditions found in different crystal structures
the number of independent elastic constants can be reduced still further
Crystal Structure Rotational Symmetry Number of Constants
Triclinic None 21
Monoclinic 1 twofold rotation 13
Orthorhombic 2 perpendicular twofold rotations 9
Tetragonal 1 fourfold rotation 6
Hexagonal 1 sixfold rotation 5
Cubic 4 threefold rotations 3
Isotropic 2
MEEN 5330 26
Isotropic Material
If the constituents of the material of a solid member are distributed
sufficiently randomly, any part of a the member will display essentially
the same material properties in all directions. If a solid member is
composed of such randomly oriented constituents, it is said to be
isotropic. Accordingly, if a material is isotropic, its physical properties
at a point are invariant under a rotation of axes and is said to be
elastically isotropic if its characteristic elastic coefficients C
ij
are
invariant under any rotation of coordinates.
Since isotropic materials are elastically the same in all directions and
there is no directional variation on property, we can obtain

C
11
= C
22
= C
33
= C
1
(5)
C
12
= C
13
= C
23
= C
2
(6)

This reduces the number of constants to 2

MEEN 5330 27
Isotropic Material (Cont)
In the principal coordinates system we can then write stresses as
(7)

(8)

(9)
These equations can be written in terms of the index notation as
(10)


Where and
(11)

are called Lames constants

) (
) (
) (
'
22
'
11 2
'
33 1
'
33
'
11
'
33 2
'
22 1
'
22
'
33
'
22 2
'
11 1
'
11
l l C l C
l l C l C
l l C l C
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
o
o
o
' ' ' '
2
ij ij ii ij
l l o o + =
2
C =
2
2 1
C C
=
MEEN 5330 28
Isotropic Material (Cont)
Transforming the primed quantities to unprimed ones through
the use of Cartesian tensor transformation laws, we obtain

(12)

Solving for l
ij
, we have

(13)

Equations (12) and (13) are two forms of the generalized
Hookes law for an isotropic elastic solid in terms of Lames
constants and . However, is not easy to interpret physically,
and engineers frequently prefer to have the same equations
expressed in terms of the engineering constants and E.
mn mn ii mn
l l o o 2 + =
ij ij mm ij
l o

o o


2
1
) 2 3 ( 2
+
+
=
MEEN 5330 29
Isotropic Material (Cont)
Poissons ratio ()
Is the ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain in a uniaxial state
of stress.
Youngs modulus (E)
Is also called the modulus of elasticity, and is the ratio of stress to strain in
a uniaxial state of stress.
The strain-stress relations for and isotropic, elastic solid in terms of
and E can be derived

(14)

(15)

(16)

)] ( [
1
)] ( [
1
)] ( [
1
22 11 33 33
11 33 22 22
33 22 11 11
o o v o
o o v o
o o v o
+ =
+ =
+ =
E
l
E
l
E
l
MEEN 5330 30
Isotropic Material (Cont)
Comparing the previous equations, we note that
(17)


(18)


(19)


(20)
) 1 ( 2
) 2 1 )( 1 (
) ( 2
) 2 3 (
v

v v
v

v


+
=
+
=
+
=
+
+
=
E
E
E
MEEN 5330 31
Isotropic Material (Cont)
And that

(21)


(22)


(23)


12
12
12
31
31
31
23
23
23
1
2
1
2
1
2
o
v

o
o
v

o
o
v

o
E
l
E
l
E
l
+
= =
+
= =
+
= =
MEEN 5330 32
Isotropic Material (Cont)
Expressed in indicial form, equations (21), (22) and (23) took the form

(24)

Finally, expressing
ij
in terms of l
ij
and the elastic constants and E,
we find

(25)

We now have four standard forms for the generalized Hookes law for
an isotropic, linear, elastic solid, equations (12), (13), (24) and (25).
Note that there are only two independent constants (either and , or
and E) relating the stress tensor and the strain tensor for an isotropic,
homogeneous, linear elastic solid.
kk ij ij ij
E E
l o o
v
o
v

+
=
) 1 (
]
2 1
[
1
ij kk ij ij
l l
E
o
v
v
v
o

+
=
MEEN 5330 33
Isotropic Material (Cont)
The tensor equation (25) represents the six scalar
equations

(26)

(27)

(28)


(29) (30) (31)
)] ( ) 1 [(
) 2 1 )( 1 (
)] ( ) 1 [(
) 2 1 )( 1 (
)] ( ) 1 [(
) 2 1 )( 1 (
11 22 33 33
11 33 22 22
33 22 11 11
l l l
E
l l l
E
l l l
E
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
=
v v
v v
o
v v
v v
o
v v
v v
o
12 12
1
l
E
v
o
+
=
13 13
1
l
E
v
o
+
=
23 23
1
l
E
v
o
+
=
MEEN 5330 34
Isotropic Material (Cont)
In matrix form



(31)





(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

31
23
12
33
22
11
31
23
12
33
22
11
2
2 1
0 0 0 0 0
0
2
2 1
0 0 0 0
0 0
2
2 1
0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
) 2 1 )( 1 (
l
l
l
l
l
l
E
v
v
v
v v v
v v v
v v v
v v
o
o
o
o
o
o
MEEN 5330 35
Anisotropic Material
Generally, in the 3-D case Hookes law asserts that each of the stress
components is a linear function of the components of the strain tensor,
where the 36 independent constants, C
11
,,C
66
, are called elastic
coefficients. Materials that exhibit such stress-strain relations involving
a number of coefficients are said to be anisotropic. In reality, this is an
assumption that is reasonably accurate for many materials subjected to
small strains. For a given temperature, time and location in the body,
the coefficients C
ij
are constants that are characteristics of the material.
From an examination of the equations, we find that for an anisotropic
material (crystal), with one plane of symmetry, the 36 independent
constants C
ij
reduce to 21 and the generalized Hookes law (constitutive
equation) has the form of equation (3)

MEEN 5330 36
Anisotropic Material (Cont)




(3)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
6
5
4
3
2
1
66
56 55
46 45 44
36 35 34 33
26 25 24 23 22
16 15 14 13 12 11
6
5
4
3
2
1
l
l
l
l
l
l
C
C C symm
C C C
C C C C
C C C C C
C C C C C C
o
o
o
o
o
o
MEEN 5330 37
Anisotropic Material (Cont)
Elastic deformation under anisotropic conditions is described by the elastic
constants C
ij
, whose number can vary from 21 for the most anisotropic solid
to 3 for one exhibiting cubic symmetry. As we are going to see next, for
isotropic solids, the number of independent elastic constants is 2.
There are two sources of anisotropy:
Texture, in which the grains are not randomly oriented, but have one or
more preferred orientations. Texturing is often introduced by
deformation processes, such as cold rolling, wire drawing, and
extrusion.
Alignment of inclusions or second-phase particles along specific
directions. When steel is produced, the inclusions existing in the ingot
take the shape and orientation of the rolling. These inclusions produce
mechanical effects called fibering.
Anisotropy can strongly affect the yield stress and also influence fracture.
Some anisotropic materials, such as wood and fiber-reinforced composites,
may have low strength in the radial direction.
MEEN 5330 38
Orthotropic Material
Materials such as wood, laminated plastics, cold rolled steels,
reinforced concrete, various composite materials such as laminated
composites made by the consolidation of pre-pregged sheets, with
individual plies having different fiber orientation, and even forgings can
be treated as orthotropic.
They possess 3 orthogonal planes of material symmetry and three
corresponding orthogonal axes called orthotropic axes. In some
materials (forgings) these axes may vary from point to point.
In other materials (fiber-reinforced plastics, reinforced concrete),
orthotropic directions remain constant as long as the fibers and steel
reinforcing bars maintain constant directions. In any case, for an
elastic orthotropic material, independent constants C
ij
remain
unchanged at a point under a rotation of 180 about any of the
orthotropic axes. Then, the original 36 constants C
ij
reduce to 12 and
the generalized Hookes law (constitutive equation) has the form of
equation (4)
MEEN 5330 39
Orthotropic Material (Cont)




(4)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
6
5
4
3
2
1
66
55
44
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
l
l
l
l
l
l
C
C
C
C C C
C C C
C C C
o
o
o
o
o
o
MEEN 5330 40
Orthotropic Material / Example
A lamina (a thin plate, sheet, or layer of material) of a section of an
airplane wing is composed of unidirectional fibers and a resin matrix
that bonds the fibers. Let the volume fraction (the proportion of fiber
volume to the total volume of the composite) be f. Determine the
effective linear stress-strain relations of the lamina.







Figure 1 Lamina: fiber volume fraction = f , resin volume fraction = 1 - f
MEEN 5330 41
Orthotropic Material / Example
Let the modulus of elasticity and the Poisson ratio of the fibers be
denoted E
F
and
F
respectively, and the modulus elasticity and the
Poisson ratio of the resin be E
R
and R. Since the lamina is thin, the
effective state of stress in the lamina is approximately one of plane
stress in the x-y plane of the lamina (see Figure 1a). Hence, the stress-
strain relations for the fibers and the resin are



(a)


) (
1
) (
1
) (
1
) (
1
xxR R yyR
R
yyR
yyR R xxR
R
xxR
xxF F yyF
F
yyF
yyF F xxF
F
xxF
E
l
E
l
E
l
E
l
o v o
o v o
o v o
o v o
=
=
=
=
MEEN 5330 42
Orthotropic Material / Example
where(
xxF
,
yyF
) ,(
xxR
,
yyR
),(
xxF
,
yyF
), and (
xxR
,
yyR
) denote stress
and strain components in the fiber (F) and resin (R), respectively.
Since the fiber and resin are bounded, the effective lamina strain
xx
is
the same as that in the fibers and in the resin; that is ,in the x
direction
(b)
In the y direction, the effective lamina strain
yy
is proportional to the
amount of fibre per unit length in the y direction and the amount of
resin per unit length in the y direction .Hence,
(c)

Also, by equilibrium of the lamina in the x direction, the effective
lamina stress
xx
is
(d)
xxR xxF xx
c c c = =
yyR yyF yy
f f c c c ) 1 ( + =
xxR xxF xx
f f o o o ) 1 ( + =
MEEN 5330 43
Orthotropic Material / Example
in the y direction, the effective lamina stress
yy
is the same as in the
fibers and in the resins; that is,
(d)
Solving Eqs (a) through (e) for
xx
and
yy
in terms of
xx
and
yy
, we
obtain the effective stress-strain relations for the lamina as


(f)

where

(g)

yyR yyF yy
o o o = =
) (
1
) (
1
xx yy yy
yy xx xx
E
E
vo |o c
vo o c
=
=
]
1
1
2 ) 1 ( ) 1 )[( 1 (
) 1 (
) 1 (
2 2
f
f
f
f
E
E
E
E
f f
f f
E f f E E
R F
F
R
F
R
F
R
R F
R F

+ + + =
+ =
+ =
v v v v |
v v v
MEEN 5330 44
Orthotropic Material / Example
To determine the shear stress-strain ,we apply a shear stress
xy
to a
rectangular element of the lamina (Figure 1b), and we calculate the
angle change
xy
of the rectangle. By figure 1b, the relative
displacement b of the top of the element is
(h)
where
F
and
R
are the angle changes attributed to the fiber and the
resin, respectively; that is,
(i)

and G
F
and G
R
are the shear moduli of elasticity of the fiber and resin,
respectively. Hence, the change in the angle of the element (the shear
strain) is, with eqs (h) and (i),
(j)

R F
f f b ) 1 ( + =
R
xy
R
F
xy
F
G G
o

o
= = ,
xy
R F
F R
xy xy
G G
G f fG b
o c ]
) 1 (
[
1
2
+
= = =
MEEN 5330 45
Orthotropic Material / Example
By Eq (j), the shear stress strain relation is
(k)
where
(l)


Thus, by Eqs (f), (g), (k), (l), we obtain the stress-strain relations of
the lamina, in the form of Eqs.


(m)

F R
R F
G f fG
G G
G
) 1 ( +
=
xy xy xy
G G c o 2 = =
xy xy
yy xx yy
yy xx xx
C
C C
C C
o
c c o
c c o
33
22 12
12 11
=
+ =
+ =
MEEN 5330 46
Orthotropic Material / Example
Where



(n)



Finally, in an orthotropic material, if the constants C
ij
are written in the
form of elastic moduli (E) and Poisson ratios (), it is possible for some
of the Poisson ratios to exceed 0.5, which is not possible for an
isotropic material.



G C
E
C
E
C
E
C
=

=
33
2
22
2
12
2
11
,
,
v |
v |
v
v |
|
MEEN 5330 47
Homework Problem
An hydrostatic compressive stress applied to a material with
cubic symmetry results in a cubical dilatation of 10
-5
mm/mm.
The three independent elastic constants of the material are
C
11
=50 GPa
C
12
=40 GPa
C
66
=32 GPa
a) Write an expression for the generalized Hookes Law
b) Compute the applied hydrostatic stress.
MEEN 5330 48
References

Batra, Romesh C., Introduction to Continuum Mechanics, Virginia
Polytechich Institute and University, 2000
Boresi, Arthur P. and Schmidt Richard J., Advanced Mechanical of
Materials, 6
th
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003
Cook, Robert D. and Young, Warren C., Advanced Mechanics of
Materials, 2
nd
Edition, Prentice Hall, 1999
Dieter, George E., Mechanical Metallurgy, 3
rd
Edition, McGraw-Hill,
1986
Frederick, Daniel and Chang, Tien Sun, Continuum Mechanics,
Scientific Publishers, Inc. Cambridge, 1972
Heinbockel, J.H., Introduction to Tensor Calculus and Continuum
Mechanics, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Old Dominion
University, 1996
Meyers, Marc A. and Chawla, Krishan K., Mechanical Behavior of
Materials, Prentice Hall, 1999.
Saouma, Victor E., Introduction to Continuum Mechanics and Elements
of Elasticity/Structural Mechanics, Department of Civil, Environmental
and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, 1998