Chapter 6 (Blm 6): Mechanical Properties (Mekanik zellikler)

renilecek Baz Kavramlar...

Stress and strain: Gerilme ve Genleme (Birim ekil Deiimi)

Elastic behavior: Elastik davran

Plastic behavior: Plastik davran

Toughness and ductility: Tokluk ve sneklik

Chapter 6 - 1

Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load
bonds stretch
return to initial

3. Unload

d
F
Elastic means reversible!

Linearelastic
Non-Linearelastic

Chapter 6 - 2

Plastic Deformation (Metals)

1. Initial 2. Small load bonds stretch & planes shear delastic + plastic 3. Unload p lanes still sheared dplastic

F F
Plastic means permanent!
linear elastic

linear elastic

dplastic

Chapter 6 - 3

Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test machine Typical tensile specimen

extensometer

specimen

Adapted from Fig. 6.2, Callister 7e.

gauge length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)

Chapter 6 - 4

Linear Elastic Properties

Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

Hooke's Law:

s=Ee

s E e
Linearelastic

F
simple tension test
Chapter 6 - 5

Mechanical Properties
Slope of stress strain plot (which is proportional to the elastic modulus) depends on bond strength of metal

Adapted from Fig. 6.7, Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 6

Youngs Moduli: Comparison

Metals Alloys
1200 10 00 800 600 400

Graphite Composites Ceramics Polymers /fibers Semicond

Diamond Si carbide Al oxide Si nitride Si crystal
<100> <111>

E(GPa)

200
10 0 80 60 40

Tungsten Molybdenum Steel, Ni Tantalum Platinum Cu alloys Zinc, Ti Silver, Gold Aluminum Magnesium, Tin

Carbon fibers only

C FRE(|| fibers)*
Aramid fibers only

Glass -soda

A FRE(|| fibers)*
Glass fibers only

G FRE(|| fibers)* Concrete GFRE* G raphite CFRE * G FRE( fibers)* C FRE( fibers) * AFRE( fibers) *

109 Pa

20 10 8 6 4 2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

Polyester PET PS PC PP HDP E PTF E LDPE

Epoxy only

Based on data in Table B2, Callister 7e. Composite data based on reinforced epoxy with 60 vol% of aligned carbon (CFRE), aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE) fibers.

Wood(

grain)

Chapter 6 - 7

Plastic (Permanent) Deformation

(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

Simple tension test:

engineering stress, s Elastic+Plastic at larger stress

Elastic initially
permanent (plastic) after load is removed

ep

engineering strain, e plastic strain

Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a), Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 8

Yield Strength, sy
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has occurred. when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s

sy

sy = yield strength
Note: for 2 inch sample e = 0.002 = z/z z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e

ep = 0.002

Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a), Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 9

Yield Strength : Comparison

Metals/ Alloys 20 00
Steel (4140) qt

Graphite/ Ceramics/ Semicond

Polymers

Composites/ fibers

Yield strength, sy (MPa)

10 00
700 600 500 400 300 200

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a W (pure) Cu (71500) cw Mo (pure) Steel (4140) a Steel (1020) cd

Hard to measure ,

Al (6061) ag Steel (1020) hr Ti (pure) a Ta (pure) Cu (71500) hr

Hard to measure,

Room T values
Based on data in Table B4, Callister 7e. a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered

100 70 60 50 40 30 20
Tin (pure) Al (6061) a

dry

PC Nylon 6,6 PET PVC humid PP HDPE

LDPE

10

Chapter 6 - 10

Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.

TS engineering stress
sy

Adapted from Fig. 6.11, Callister 7e.

F = fracture or ultimate strength Neck acts as stress concentrator

Typical response of a metal

strain engineering strain

Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts. Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 6 - 11

Tensile Strength : Comparison

Metals/ Alloys 5000 3000 2000 1000 Graphite/ Ceramics/ Semicond Polymers Composites/ fibers
C fibers Aramid fib E-glass fib Steel (4140) qt Diamond W (pure) Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a a Steel (4140) Si nitride Cu (71500) cw Cu (71500) hr Al oxide Steel (1020) ag Al (6061) a Ti (pure) Ta (pure) Al (6061) a Si crystal
<100>

Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

A FRE(|| fiber) GFRE(|| fiber) CFRE(|| fiber)

300 200 100

Room Temp. values

Nylon 6,6 PC PET PVC PP HDPE wood(|| fiber) GFRE( fiber) CFRE( fiber) A FRE( fiber)

40 30
20 10

Glass-soda Concrete Graphite

LDPE

wood (

fiber)

Based on data in Table B4, Callister 7e. a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE = aramid, glass, & carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy composites, with 60 vol% fibers.
Chapter 6 - 12

Ductility
Plastic tensile strain at failure:
smaller %EL Engineering tensile stress, s
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, Callister 7e.

Lf - Lo x 100 %EL = Lo

larger %EL

Lo

Ao

Af

Lf

Engineering tensile strain, e

Another ductility measure:

%RA =

Ao - Af x 100 Ao
Chapter 6 - 13

Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
Engineering tensile stress, s
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, Callister 7e.

small toughness (ceramics) large toughness (metals)

very small toughness (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain,

Brittle fracture: elastic energy Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy

Chapter 6 - 14

Resilience, Ur
Ability of a material to store energy Energy stored best in elastic region

Ur =

ey

sde

If we assume a linear stress-strain curve this simplifies to

1 Ur @ sy e y 2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15, Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 15

Elastic Strain Recovery

Adapted from Fig. 6.17, Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 16

Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface. Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression. --better wear properties.
apply known force e.g., 10 mm sphere measure size of indent after removing load

D
most plastics brasses Al alloys

d
easy to machine steels file hard

Smaller indents mean larger hardness.

cutting tools nitrided steels

diamond

increasing hardness
Chapter 6 - 17

Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100. Minor load 10 kg Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter 6 - 18

Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

Chapter 6 - 19

True Stress & Strain

Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched True stress True Strain
sT = F Ai

eT = ln i o

sT = s1 e eT = ln1 e

Adapted from Fig. 6.16, Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 20

Hardening
An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.

sy 1 sy

large hardening small hardening

e
Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

sT = K eT
true stress (F/A)

hardening exponent: n = 0.15 (some steels) to n = 0.5 (some coppers)

true strain: ln(L/Lo)

Chapter 6 - 21

Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent measures of load and displacement, respectively. Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often shows a linear relation between stress and strain. To minimize deformation, select a material with a large elastic modulus (E or G). Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive) uniaxial stress reaches sy. Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of material. Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Chapter 6 - 22

ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 6 - 23