Knowledge Is Power

SM
Apparatus Maintenance and Power Management
for Energy Delivery
Doble Engineering Company
Electrical Insulation Modeling
Scope
Prevention of Apparatus Failure and
Power System Interruptions due to
Insulation Failure
Enhance System Reliability
Minimize Damage to Apparatus
Enhances Safety to Personnel
Minimize Loss of Revenue
Benefit
Extension of Apparatus Life
Degradation of Insulation, if detected before failure, can
generally be restored to its original condition
Defer replacement costs
Better Utilization of Resources
Inspection interval may be safety extended or scheduled
to utilize resources efficiently and effectively
Variation of new apparatus
Verify that new apparatus meets purchased specification and
agrees with factory test reports
Assures proper field Assembly

Definition
What is a Power Factor/ Dissipation
Factor/Tangent Delta Test?
The underlying principle of this test is to measure
the fundamental AC electrical characteristics of
insulation.

Definition


Insulation
IEEE Defines Insulation as:Material or a
combination of suitable non-conducting
material that provides electrical isolation of
two parts at different voltages.
Clarification
Insulation vs. Dielectric
Insulation relates to a mediums ability to prevent
the flow of current, I.e. poor conduc
Dielectric implies that the medium or material has
specific measurable properties such as: Dielectric
Strength, Dielectric Constant, Dielectric Loss and
Power Factor.
In 1836, Michael Faraday (the father of the Capacitance
-- Just look at his name) discovered that when the
plates between a capacitor were filled with another
insulating material, the capacitance would change.
This factor is the dielectric constant c
By definition the dielectric constant of a Vacuum is 1.0.
All other dielectric constants are referenced to this
standard.
Vacuum
C
vacuum
=10 pF
Oil c=2.2
C
oil
= c x Vacuum = 22 pF
Dielectric Constant
Dielectric Loss is the time rate at which electric
energy is transformed into heat in a dielectric when it
is subjected to an electric field. The heat generated is
given in terms of Watts.
i
R
~ Watts
Watts = E I
R

Watts = Contamination + Deterioration
Contamination = Water + Carbon + Dirt
Deterioration = Carbon + Corona
Dielectric Loss
Fundamental measurement
Fundamental AC Electrical
Characteristics. . .
Total Current I
T

Capacitance C
Dielectric-Loss W
Dissipation Factor %DF or DF
Power Factor %PF or PF
Resistance R


Perfect Insulator
The Capacitor
Ideal Insulation System
Evaluating Insulation System
Phase Shift
Purely Capacitive Circuit
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0
.
1
0
.
7
1
.
3
1
.
9
2
.
5
3
.
1
3
.
7
4
.
3
4
.
9
5
.
5
6
.
1
6
.
7
7
.
3
7
.
9
8
.
5
9
.
1
9
.
7
1
0
.
3
1
0
.
9
1
1
.
5
1
2
.
1
Time
M
a
g
n
a
t
u
d
e
Voltage
Current
E
u=90
o
I
C
I
T
=
Reactive Component
Basic Equation
I
C
= EeC (e = 2tf)
}

Physical
}

Considered
Constants
During Testing
10 kV, 60 Hz
A
d
I
C
C =
Ac
4td
I
C
= Ee
Ac
4td
Influence of Physical Changes on Current & Capacitance
}

Physical
}

10 kV, 60 Hz
I
C
A
d
I
C
= EeC (e = 2tf)
C =
Ac
4td
I
C
= Ee
Ac
4td
I
d

E ~
d
I
2d

E ~
2d
C =
Ac
4td
I
2d
= Ee(C/2)
I
d
= EeC
Ac
4t(2d)
=
C
2
Double the
distance
= I
d
/2
Distance Between the Plates d of the Capacitor
Distance Between the Plates d of the Capacitor
d | C
d + C
+ I
c
+
| I
c
|
Current and Capacitance
Fundamental AC Electrical
Characteristics. . .
Total Current I
T

Capacitance C
Dielectric-Loss W
Power Factor %PF
Resistance R


}
Evaluate physical makeup of
specimen, size dependent
Real Insulation Model
Simplified Equivalent Circuits of an Insulation Specimen
Series Circuit
R
S
C
S
C
P
Parallel Circuit
No phase shift
The Perfect Resistor
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0
.
1
0
.
7
1
.
3
1
.
9
2
.
5
3
.
1
3
.
7
4
.
3
4
.
9
5
.
5
6
.
1
6
.
7
7
.
3
7
.
9
8
.
5
9
.
1
9
.
7
1
0
.
3
1
0
.
9
1
1
.
5
1
2
.
1
Time
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
Voltage
Current
Resistive Component
The Resistor
I
R
I
R
= I
T

I
R
= E/R
W=EI
R

u=0
o
E
Real Component
Fundamental AC Electrical
Characteristics. . .
Total Current I
T

Capacitance C
Dielectric-Loss W
Resistance R
Power Factor %PF


}
Evaluate quality of the
dielectric material, size
dependent
Basic Insulation Circuit
Basic Power/Dissipation Factor Circuit
Power Factor Is Size Independent
I
C2
Specimen 1: 5 MVA Transformer
Specimen 2: 10MVA Transformer
remains the same regardless of the size of the transformer
Power Factor is an evaluation of the quality of the insulation
and is size independent
I
T2
I
R2
E
I
R1
I
C1 I
T1
Definition
The Term Power/Dissipation Factor Describes
The phase angle relationship between the applied voltage
across and the total current through a specimen.
The ratio of the real power to the apparent power.
The relationship between the total and resistive current
Basic Insulation & Power Factor Theory
How to Calculate Power Factor
=

=
E I
E I
I
I
R
T
R
T
Real Power
Apparent Power
Watts = E x I
R
PF = Cosine =
Watts
u
E I
T

=
Real Current
Total Current
Basic Insulation & Power Factor Theory
Fundamental AC Electrical
Characteristics. . .
Total Current I
T

Capacitance C
Dielectric-Loss W
Resistance R
Power Factor %PF


}
Overall evaluate of the
insulation (physical and
quality) requires at once one
other piece of information,
size independent
Measurement Overview
V
Reference
Applied Voltage
Measure
Total Current Vector
Angle
Magnitude
Calculate
Capacitance
Power Factor
Real Loss (Watts)
I
T


Watts
Capacitanc
e
Basic Insulation & Power Factor Theory
Power Factor Vs. Dissipation Factor Vs. Tangent Delta
E
O
o
I
R
I
C
I
T
Power Factor = =
I
I
Dissipation Factor = =
I
I

R
T
R
C
COS
TAN
O
o
O
% PF (% COS
O
)
o
% DF (% TAN
A
)
90 0 0 0
89.71 .500 .29 .500
84.26 10.00 5.74 10.05
0 100.00 90 INFINITY
Voltage sensitive characteristics
When we closely examine insulation, very small
gaps or voids could exist. These voids develop
an electrostatic potential on their surfaces. These
small gaps become ionized: Partial
Discharge/Corona.
Voids
Power Factor vs. Test Potential


As test voltage is increased, the power factor will increase depending
on the void density.

Tip-Up = Power Factor at Line-to-ground voltage -
Power Factor at 25% Line-to-ground voltage
Tip-up occurs in dry-type insulation specimens such as Dry Type
Transformer, rotating machinery, and cables.
25% L-G L-G
E
%PF
%PF @ 25% L-G
%PF @ L-G
Knowledge Is Power
SM
Apparatus Maintenance and Power Management
for Energy Delivery
Doble Engineering Company
Measurement Principle
Basic Laws of Electricity
A Difference in Potential Must Exist
Between Two Points in order for
current to flow

Current Always Returns to Its
Source

Current Always Takes the Path of
Least Resistance


Test components of the test set
Components of Simplified Test Circuits
Power Source
Current & Loss Meter
High-Voltage Test Cable
Low-Voltage Test Cable
Insulation Specimen
Test Ground
Test Set operation is based on the
Relative Positions of the Power
Source, Current & Loss Meter, and the
Insulation Specimen with respect to
the various test leads.
Grounded-Specimen Test Mode (GST-
Ground)
Guard
Test Ground
High-Voltage Cable
Low-Voltage
Lead
Test-Set
Ground Lead
Test-Set
Step-Up
Transformer
Current &
Loss
Meter
Grounded-Specimen Test Mode (GST-
Guard)
Current &
Loss
Meter
Guard
Test Ground
High-Voltage Cable
Low-Voltage
Lead
Test-Set
Ground Lead
Test-Set
Step-Up
Transformer
Ungrounded-Specimen Test Mode (UST)
Current &
Loss
Meter
Guard
Test
Ground
High-Voltage
Cable
Low-
Voltage
Lead
Test-Set
Ground
Lead
Test-Set
Step-Up
Transformer
Guar
d
High-Voltage
Cable
Test-Set
Step-Up
Transforme
r
Test
Ground
Low-
Voltage
Lead
Test-Set
Ground
Lead
Current &
Loss
Meter
C
A
C
B
I
A
I
B
I
A
+I
B
GST-Ground
Measure C
A
and C
B
Guard
High-Voltage
Cable
Test-Set
Step-Up
Transformer
Test
Ground
Low-
Voltage
Lead
Test-Set
Ground
Lead
Current &
Loss
Meter
GST-Guard
C
A
C
B
I
A
I
B
I
B
Measure C
A
Guard C
B
Guard
High-Voltage
Cable
Test-Set
Step-Up
Transformer
Test
Ground
Low-
Voltage
Lead
Test-Set
Ground
Lead
Current &
Loss
Meter
UST
C
A
C
B
I
A
I
B
I
A
Measure C
A
Ground/Guard C
B
Guard
High-Voltage
Cable
Test-Set
Step-Up
Transformer
Test
Ground
Low-
Voltage
Leads
Test-Set
Ground
Lead
Current &
Loss
Meter
C
B
C
C
I
B
I
C
I
A
+I
B
+I
C
GST Ground
Red + Blue
Measure C
A
+ C
B
+ C
C
C
A
I
A
Guard
High-Voltage
Cable
Test-Set
Step-Up
Transformer
Test
Ground
Low-
Voltage
Leads
Test-Set
Ground
Lead
Current &
Loss
Meter
C
B
C
C
I
B
I
C
I
B
+I
C
GST Gnd Red
Guard Blue
Measure C
B
+ C
C
C
A
I
A
Guard
High-Voltage
Cable
Test-Set
Step-Up
Transforme
r
Test
Ground
Low-
Voltage
Leads
Test-Set
Ground
Lead
Current &
Loss
Meter
C
B
C
C
I
B
I
C
I
A
+I
C
GST Gnd Blue
Guard Red
Measure C
A
+ C
C
C
A
I
A
Guard
High-Voltage
Cable
Test-Set
Step-Up
Transforme
r
Test
Ground
Low-
Voltage
Leads
Test-Set
Ground
Lead
Current &
Loss
Meter
C
B
C
C
I
B
I
C
I
C
GST Guard
Red + Blue
Measure C
C
C
A
I
A
Guard
High-Voltage
Cable
Test-Set
Step-Up
Transformer
Test
Ground
Low-
Voltage
Leads
Test-Set
Ground
Lead
Current &
Loss
Meter
C
B
C
C
I
B
I
C
I
A
+I
B
UST Measure
Red + Blue
Measure C
A
+ C
B
C
A
I
A
Guard
High-Voltage
Cable
Test-Set
Step-Up
Transformer
Test
Ground
Low-
Voltage
Leads
Test-Set
Ground
Lead
Current &
Loss
Meter
C
B
C
C
I
B
I
C
I
B
UST Measure
Red Gnd Blue
Measure C
B
C
A
I
A
Guard
High-Voltage
Cable
Test-Set
Step-Up
Transformer
Test
Ground
Low-
Voltage
Leads
Test-Set
Ground
Lead
Current &
Loss
Meter
C
B
C
C
I
B
I
C
I
A
UST Measure
Blue Gnd Red
Measure C
A
C
A
I
A
Test set shielding
Understanding Electrostatic Interference
Static
Source
Specimen
Current &
Loss Meter
I
t
I
e
+ I'
e
I
e
+ I'
e
I'
e
I
e
I
e
I
e
I
T
I'
e
I
e
T
e
s
t

S
e
t

G
r
o
u
n
d

S
h
i
e
l
d


T
e
s
t

S
e
t

G
u
a
r
d

S
h
i
e
l
d

I'
e
I'
e
I'
e
I'
e
I
e
LV Lead
Guard
Shield
Ground
Shield
Test Cable
Terminations
High-Voltage Test Cable
Test Cable Guard Shield
Test Cable Ground Shield
Electrostatic Interference
Characteristics of Interference
I
R

I
C

I
L

Electrostatic Interference and
Measurements
I
R

I
L

W W
I
T

I
T

Traditional suppression method
Interference Suppression - Line Sync Reversal
(Traditional)
Reports the average of the normal and 180 degree
reversed reading at 60 Hz. It is only effective when the
specimen current is greater than the interference current.
The test frequency is obtained from the 120/240-volt line
frequency. Some difficulties may be encountered when
using an unstable frequency source with this type of test.


I
R

I
C

I
R

I
C

Updated approach to interference
cancellation
Interference Suppression - Line Frequency
Modulation
Reports the computed result at line frequency of the two
measurements at +-5% of the line frequency, e.g. 57 and 63 Hz.
This method minimizes the effects of electrostatic interference and
yields superior results in high levels of electrostatic interference.
The test frequency is obtained from an internal oscillator. This type
of test creates a synthesized test voltage that is isolated from the
input and offers better performance using a generator or DC to AC
inverter

Measurements
Current
63 57 60 Frequency (HZ)
Interference
Input voltage interference
Causes
Portable power supply
Power quality issue
Cannot be suppressed
Stability will affect accuracy of measure
Test signal should be independent
to power line frequency
Safety!
Isolate and ground apparatus under test
Work between visible grounds
Ground M4100
Connect test lead to the M4100 first
Never come in contact with the test leads
while testing
Isolating test specimen

Issue to consider when testing