Community Ecology

The Community as an Ecological Unit Community Development

Plant Communities
Communities are composed of populations of many species living together in the same location at the same time.
Similar communities tend to occur under similar environmental conditions.
Associations have a consistent species composition and habitat But, composition can vary considerably from one location to another.

Examples of Communities
Chesapeake Bay shallow water community Bog Piedmont forest Salt marsh Alpine community Dune community

Some Characteristics of Plant Communities

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Architecture (for example forest layers) Species composition (native , invasive) Species diversity Nutrient cycling (demand, storage capacity) Development over time (succession) Productivity (Biomass) Microenvironments

Plant Communities: The Piedmont Forest

1. Part of the temperate deciduous biome
a. Precipitation relatively high b. Soils rich in organic matter c. Broad-leaf trees that lose their leaves seasonally dominate

2. The piedmont is defined as the plateau between the coastal plain and the Appalachian mountains.
The foothills of the Appalachian Mountains

Maryland Biogeography
1. Coastal Plain 2. Piedmont Province
a. Upland b. Lowland

3. Ridge/Valley Province: Middle 4. Appalachian Plateau Province:

Allegheny Mountain section

The Piedmont Forest

How old is the Piedmont region?
Underlying geology dates billions of years old. Granite, gneiss, mica-schist, gabbro, marble, and serpentine

Soil types: Loams and clay

Loamy: contains sand, silt, and clay
Holds water, but also drains well Good aeration

Clay: packs tightly, little water retention, little aeration

Land-use history
Deforestation beginning in the colonial period Primarily agricultural until the late 20th century

Chestnut-Oak forests until 1930s chestnut blight Oak-Pine or Oak-Hickory forests

Layers of the Forest

Layers of the Forest

1. Canopy

2. Understory
3.Shrubs 4. Herbaceous plants

5. Forest Floor

The Forest Community

The Canopy
the leafy crowns of the trees most of the forests food is made here (photosynthesis) feeding ground for many animals
just below the surface of the upper most layer of leaves leaf eaters: beetles, bugs and caterpillars, leaf hoppers, aphids etc. Song birds and predatory insects (spiders) feed on the insects Squirrels (eastern gray squirrel)

protection for the forest below

Canopy Trees of the Piedmont Forest

Several species of Oak Bitternut Hickory Buckeye Red Maple Beech

The Understory
Smaller trees make up the understory Young trees (same species as canopy trees) Low-growing trees (dogwoods) Many birds and animals spend most of their lives in the understory. Good for nesting, protection from hawks, owls, and stormy weather

Understory Trees of the Piedmont Forest

Dogwood Redbud Paw-Paw Service Berry Musclewood

Shrub Community
Shrubs are woody plants with many stems A characteristic canopy will harbor a characteristic shrub community Oak-Hickory forest
Spicebush Blueberry Witchhazel Huckleberry (Dangle berry)

Rarely greater than 7 feet in height Effect of a closed forest canopy/ open forest canopy on the shrub community

Blueberry

Spicebush

Shrub Community
Protective cover for small mammals
shrews mice chipmunks

Nesting sites for Robins (in shrubs) Berries and seeds for many mammals and birds

Herbaceous Layer
Emerges during the spring before the canopy is fully leafed-out Ferns and mosses Lichens Wild flowers
Spring Beauties Violets Orchids Lilies

The herbaceous layer dies out by mid-summer, existing underground as bulbs & rhizomes

Northern Violet
Viola sp.

Spring Beauty
Claytonia virginica

Lichens and Mosses

Forest Floor
The wastebasket for all the layers of the forest above leaves, petals, fruits, seeds, twigs, limbs, whole tree trunks, feathers, fur, feces, animal carcasses estimated 2000-3000 lbs/acre in the fall in various stages of decay
Yellow coral mushroom

 a handful of dirt viewed with a magnifying glass reveals earthworms, other nematodes mites, spiders, black ants, and many other insects many more organisms are microscopic The plants and animals on one acre may out number the entire human population by 106 to one! Decomposers of the forest ecosystem break down the organic matter and release inorganic matter (Nitrogen, O2, etc)

Forest Food Web

Measuring Diversity in Plant Communities

Levels of Biodiversity
1. Genetic diversity: the gene pool within a population 2. Species diversity: the number and types of species in an area 3. Higher taxonomic diversity (Families, Genera) 4. Community Diversity 5. Ecosystem diversity (Habitat diversity)

Species diversity
has two components:
1. Species richness: how many different species are present in a habitat 2. Species abundance: total number of individuals of each species present. Usually expressed as %

Defining Biodiversity:
Old growth forest in the Shenandoah Mountains of Virginia
50,000 trees represented by 10 species.

Managed forest, recently clear cut

45,000 trees are maple and birch Only 1/10th of the forest is represented by the remaining 8 species

Species diversity has two

components: 1. Species richness: how many different species are present in a habitat 2. Relative abundance: total number of individuals of each species present 3. Which area is more diverse?

Community Development: Ecological succession

Defined as the transition in species composition over ecological time Plants and animals appear and gradually alter their environment as they carry on their normal activities. The accumulation of waste, dead organic matter, and abiotic factors such as light and water availability further alters the community.

Community Development: Ecological succession

1. Primary succession Occurs in an area not previously inhabited Areas that have been completely devastated by disturbance
2. Secondary succession Occurs where there is a pre-existing community and well-formed soil

Mount St. Helens Eruption in 1980

Five explosive eruptions of Mount St Helens in 1980 sent pumice and ash 6-10 miles into the air.

The Aftermath of Mount St. Helens Eruption

These trees were blown down by a lateral blast. This is an example of where the process of primary succession will begin to bring new life

Primary Succession
Occurs on essentially lifeless terrain
Volcanic eruptions Retreat of glaciers May take hundreds to thousands of years

The first group of organisms to appear

1. 2. 3. 4. Autotrophic bacteria Lichens Mosses (organisms that reproduce by spores) Grasses, ferns, shrubs, pine trees

Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between Algae and Fungi. They secrete acid that turns rock into soil. Once the soil is established, plants can colonize

Primary Succession

Iceland is a new country emerging from both the recent ice age and frequent volcanic eruptions

Primary Succession in Ponds and Lakes

In the Northern US, many ponds and lakes are were left behind by the receding glaciers (10,000ybp) Many ponds become bogs.
have no streams drainage, so they are filled by precipitation Grow smaller every year because of succession

Bogs Algae carried in by birds and the wind They die and fall to the bottom contributing to the organic matter. Duckweeds form at the edges When nutrients, oxygen, pH, and temperatures are low Peat mosses take over, forming a thick mat. Woody shrubs and carnivorous plants grow on this substrate

Bogs are an example of Primary Succession

Peat moss

Duckweeds occur early in succession

Under less acidic conditions, duckweeds are one of the 1st plants to grow Grass-like sedges become established and form a mat Once a mat is formed, bushes, shrubs and trees become established

Secondary Succession
Existing community has been disturbed
Soil is intact Abandoned Agricultural fields:
Old field succession Climax community can become established after only decades

Disturbance colonizers: weedy plant species

1. a high reproductive rate, 2. good at dispersal

Old Field Succession

1st year Horseweed Crabgrass pigweed

3rd-18th year Young Pine forest

70th-100th Pine to Hardwood transition

2nd year Asters Crab grass

19th-30th year Mature pine Forest Understory of Young hardwoods

100th year plus Climax Oak-hickory forest

Disturbance

1. Disturbance is a natural part of the life of a community:

Tsunamis

2. Most communities are always in recovery from disturbance 3. Humans, too, are Hurricanes agents of disturbance Storms

The Nature of Disturbance

1. Damage communities 2. Alter the resources available to organisms
Disrupt the food chain

3. Removing organisms!! 4. Opportunity for secondary succession to rebuild community 5. Examples of Disturbance
a. b. c. d. e. Storms, Hurricanes, Tsunamis Ice storms Flooding Tornados Fire

Fire Ecology
Yellowstone fires of 1988 Fire is being used to manage marshes and forests