Pulse Doppler Radar: Signal

Processing Algorithm
By
Aamir Hussain
(PhD Student)


College of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering
National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST)
A Lecture on Radar Theory
Introduction
4
RADAR Basics
RADAR stands for RAdio Detection And Ranging.
Basic Radar functions can be classified as detection,
ranging and tracking.
Measurement of target angles has been included as a
basic function of most Radars.
Doppler velocity is often measured directly as a fourth
basic quantity.
Discreminitation of the desired target from background
noise and clutter is a prerequisite to detection and
measurement .
Elements of a Pulsed Radar
5
Waveform generator produces desired pulse waveform.
The transmitter modulates this waveform to the desired
radio frequency and amplifies it to a certain useful power
level.
The transmitter output is routed to the antenna through a
duplexer, also called a circulator or T/R switch .
The returning echoes are routed again by the duplexer,
into the radar receiver.
The receiver is usually a superhetrodyne design, and often
the first stage is the low noise RF amplifier.
This is followed by one or more stages of modulation of the
received signal to successively lower intermediate
frequencies (IFs) and ultimately to baseband.

Block Diagram of a Pulsed Radar
6
RF
Amplifier
Modulator
Waveform
Generator
Pedestal and
Servo
Display
Duplexer
and Filter
Exciter Synchronizer
RF Pre-
Amplifier
and Filter
IF Amplifier
Signal
Processor
Transmitter
Receiver
Exciter and
Synchronizer
Microwave
7
The base band signal is next sent to signal processor,
which performs some or all of a variety of functions such
as pulse compression, matched filtering, Doppler filtering,
and integration etc.
The processor output is sent to the system display, the
data processor, or both as appropriate.



Detection of coded pulse signal with unknown arrival time.
Statistical hypothesis testing.
We consider following two hypotheses
















8
[0, 1] M
2
o
0
1 0
: [ ] [ ] 0,1,............., 1
: [ ] [ ] [ ] 0,1,............, 1
= =
= + =
H x n w n n N
H x n s n n w n n N
The Ranging Problem
Known deterministic and
delayed signal
Noise only Hypothesis
signal plus noise
Hypothesis
Zero mean white Gaussian
noise with variance
unknown delay Received Signal
9
Generalized Likelihood Ratio Test (GLRT) is a good detector when
signal has unknown parameters
GLRT decides H
1
if














is the maximum likelihood estimate (MLE) of ,
is the PDF of under .
is the PDF of under .
is found by maximizing the above expression (3) over all
possible which simplifies to expression 4.


In case of H
1
, expression (4) becomes


This expression shows the correlation of received data with the
original phase coding signal , which has maximum value at
.



1
0
( ; , )
( )
( ; )
= >
x
x
x
o
G
p n H
L
p H

( )
0
0
1
'
0

[ ] [ ]
+
=
= >

n M
n n
Test Statics
T x x n s n n
Threshold
Likelihood Ratio
PDF of x under H
1
PDF of x under H
0

Maximum likelihood
Estimate (MLE) of delay n
o
x

0 0
0
1
0
n n n M
n N M
s s +
s s
0
Choose
maximum
over n
1
0
H
H
Received
observations
0 [ ] 1 s n n =
0
[ ]
[ ]
[ ] [ ]
w n
x n
s n n w n

=

+

' >
Implementation
of GLRT
Set of received
observations
If H
1
, then a signal (target) is declared to be present and its delay
(range) is estimated as .
Otherwise noise only is decided.

Under H
1
, the maximum value from T(x) at index is compared
to threshold .

Under H
0
, maximum value obtained at any index from T(x) is
compared to a threshold.

In both the cases probability that T(x) is greater than threshold is
calculated by Monte Carlo simulations.


10
0
n
'

0
n
P
D
:
P
FA
:
11
( )
|H
0
0
|
Y
f y H ( )
|H
1
1
|
Y
f y H
Decision regions showing P
D
and P
FA
. The probability density functions of Y corresponding to each hypothesis are
.Wher y is a particular value of the random variable Y.
and
Decision Regions for P
D
and P
FA
A
Ranging Example PW




- - -

- --

Delay
Pulse Width = 102.2 u sec
PRF = 1 KHz
PRI = 10
-3 sec

Maximum Unambiguous range =
PRI x C/2 =150 km (R=CT/2)


12
T
xd
Pulse Train

R
vd
Pulse Train

PRI
Delay for 6 km range is t = 40 micro second.
T = 2R/C








Single target detected at a range of 6 km


13
0 40 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time Delay (Micro Seconds)
C
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n

V
a
l
u
e

1
Single Target at 6 km range
Two Dimensional Detection
Target detection involves estimating the values for two variables,
namely, range (time-of-arrival of the echo signal) and Doppler
shift in frequency of the transmitted phase coded signal.
Since two unknowns have to be estimated in order to locate the
target, the process of detection is called two-dimensional
detection.

14 Time delay
Doppler Shift (bins)
Two targets detected at different ranges with different Doppler shifts
Transmitted and Received Pulsed Signals
Pulses of carrier are transmitted.

The delay and Doppler shifted received signal is given by .




15
c
e
Transmitted Signal
Received Signal
Delay
Delay
Transmitted pulse train
Delay and Doppler introduced Received pulse train from a single target
- -- -
- -- -
Pulse repetition interval (PRI) of N samples
Pulse width M samples
( )
[ ] [ ]cos ; [ ] 0,........, 1 = =
c
x n s n n s n M e
( )
0
[ ] [ ]cos ( ) = + +
c D
r n s n n n e e |
16
[ ] r n
Received
Signal
Complex Quadrature
Demodulation at the
receiver
+
c
e o

c
e o
( )
0
[ ] [ ]
+
=
D
j n
y n s n n e
e |
cos( )
c
n e
sin( )
c
n e
+
Complex addition
Signal Processing Algorithm for pulse Doppler
Radar
Complex quadrature demodulation with carrier is carried out at
the receiver.


After complex demodulation, the delay and Doppler shifted
received signal is sliced (decimated) into sequences ( ) of
length equal to one PRI (Pulse repetition interval) of the transmitted
pulse train.

These slices are placed one upon the other and a stack is
constructed.



17
0
[ ]
i
x n n
( ) ( ) { }
0
[ ] [ ] cos sin = + +
D D
y n s n n n j n e | e |
( )
0
[ ] [ ]
+
=
D
j n
y n s n n e
e |
c
e
( )
0 0
[ ] [ ] 0,.................., 1
+
= =
D
j n
i
x n n s n n e n N
e |
Stack Constructed from the received
Signal
18
S
e
c
o
n
d
a
r
y

t
i
m
e

a
x
i
s

(
I
-
a
x
i
s
)

Primary time axis (n-axis)
Stack of decimated received pulse train.
Figure
Stack of pulse trains reflected from two targets.
Primary time axis
Secondary time axis
P
u
l
s
e


A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Stack of Pulses collected in time

0
[ ]
i
x n n
Signal Processing Algorithm: Mathematical basis
19
Let a pulse signal be expressed as


A pulse train with samples is given by



















1 0 1
[ ]
0 1
s s

=

s s

k M
s k
M k N
{ } | |
0
[ ],
[ ] [ ] [ 2 ] ...

=
=
= + + +

l
P s k N s k lN
s k s k N s k N
= PRI N
{ }
[ ] [ ], =
x
t k P s k N
The pulse train echoed from a target has a certain delay
and Doppler shift; and is given by




Now we define two new factors as


20
{ } ( )
0
0
[ ] [ ], exp
time delay; Doppler shift
and phase introduced due to the channel and delay.
=
= =
=
x D
D
r k P s k n N j k j
where n
e u
e
u
and mod( , )
where = The pulse number
= The sample number
= =
k
m n k N
N
m
n
The received pulse train is decimated by a factor of N , and a stack
of these pulses is constructed
( ) ( )
0
0
[ , ] [ ]exp
[ ]
'

'
=
= +
=
D D
D D
D
j n j m j
N
r m n s n n j m N n j
s n n e e e where
e e u
e e
e u
21 Time axis
Frequency
axis
0
a
e
b
e
2
a
e
1
a
e
1
a
e +
2
a
e +
2
b
e
1
b
e
1
b
e +
2
b
e +
1 N
Time axis (delay in terms of
number of samples)
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

a
x
i
s

(
b
i
n
s
)

Primary time (n) axis


DFT operation on the stack of the pulses
DFT operation on the Stack
Result of the DFT operation
S
e
c
o
n
d
a
r
y

t
i
m
e

a
x
i
s

(
I
-
a
x
i
s
)









D
F
T

We take N DFTs of the N columns of the stack
( )
0
0
( ) ( )
0 0
1
( )
0 0

[ , ] [ ] [ ]
cos( ) ( ) [ ] [ ]
' '
+
'
= ~
(
= +
(

D D D
D
j n j k j k j j
n M
j k
n
R k n e s n n e e e s n n e
n jsin n s n n s n n e
e e e u u
e
u u
22
Figure: DFT integrates the pulses onto the
correct Doppler frequencies
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

a
x
i
s

(
b
i
n
s
)

Time Delay (No. of samples)
Frequency axis ( bins)
Result after DFT Operation
Correlation on the
DFT Operated Stack
Integration of pulses onto correct Doppler frequencies by
the DFT
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

a
x
i
s

(
b
i
n
s
)

Result of DFT Operation
Time axis
Frequency
axis
0
a
e
b
e
2
a
e
1
a
e
1
a
e +
2
a
e +
2
b
e
1
b
e
1
b
e +
2
b
e +
1 N
Correlation with the Txd pulse
23
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

a
x
i
s

(
b
i
n
s
)


Result after DFT and Correlation
Time Delay
(No. of samples)

Frequency axis (bins)

Two targets detected at two different delays
and Doppler shifts
Target positions on two dimensional
range Doppler map
Time axis
Frequency
axis
0
a
e
b
e
1
2
a
e
1
a
e
1
a
e +
2
a
e +
2
b
e
1
b
e
1
b
e +
2
b
e +
1 N
24
[ ] r n
Received
Signal
Block Diagram of Signal
Processing Algorithm
+
c
e o

Construction of stack
from the complex
demodulated signal

DFT operation on
each column of the
stack

c
e o
( )
0
[ ] [ ]
+
=
D
j n
y n s n n e
e |
cos( )
c
n e
sin( )
c
n e
+
Correlation of each row of the
DFT operated stack with the
baseband pulse s[n]
Decision of the presence or
otherwise of the target
Analysis of the Detection
Performance of the Algorithm
Analysis of the Detection Performance
The detection performance of the GLRT detector is to plot probability
of detection (P
D
) versus probability of false alarm (P
FA
).
Statement of the detection problem


The GLRT for the target detection problem in the presence of white
Gaussian noise (WGN) is to decide H
1
if


where and is the MLEs of amplitude, phase, frequency and
the delay respectively. The simplified result is



which is the periodogram.






26
0
0 / 0
0 0
0
2
1
'
0 / 0 0
,

0 0 0
max Re( [ ]) ( [ ])} [ ]
, 1,.............. 1
+
=
+ >
= + +

I
n M
k k I
n f
n n
x n n jIm x n n s n n
where n n n n M

0
1 0 0
: [ ] [ ] 0,1,.............., 1; 0,1,............, 1
: [ ] [ ]cos(2 ) [ ] 0,1,..............., 1; 0,1,..........., 1
= = =
= + + = =
i i
i i
H x n w n n N i I
H x n s n n f n w n n N i I t |
0

, , A f |
0
n
0 0 1
0

p(x; A, , f , n , H )
p(x; H )
|
>
Determination of the Detection Performance
Probability of False Alarm


The set of random variables ,
are all independent and Gaussian.
Furthermore, they are identically distributed, each with mean zero
and variance .





for all and and the are all independent.
27
0
0
1
0 0 0

{ ( [ ]) ( [ ])} [ ]
( ) ( )
+
=
+
= +

n M
k k
n n
k k
real x n n jIm x n n s n n
U n jV n
{ ( )
k
U n ( )}
k
V n
0,1,........., 1; 1, 2,.........., / 2 1 = = for n M k I

2
/ 2 Mo
0 0
0 0
2
1 1
0 0 0 0

,
2
( [ ]) [ ] Im( [ ]) [ ]
( )
/ 2
+ +
= =
+
=

n M n M
k k
n n n n
k n
real x n n s n n j x n n s n n
T x
Mo
2 2
, 0
2 2
2
2
( ) ( )
( ) /
/ 2 / 2
( deg )
| | | |
= + =
| |
\ . \ .

k k
k n
U n V n
T x at each n along the row i k I
M M
chi square PDF of two rees of freedom
o o
_
,
( )
n k
T x
k n
Probability of False Alarm (P
FA
)

28
2
'
, 0
,
Pr{max ( ) ; }
2
= >
FA k n
k n
P T x H
o

'
, 0
2
,
2
Pr{ma 1 x ( ) ; } = <
k n
n
A
k
F
T x P H

o
FA
P
1


Resolution cell
False alarm

can
occur in any
cell
Noise only
False Alarm = Under H
0
Noise only exceeds the
threshold
29
'
, 0
2
,
2
Pr{ ( ) ; } 1 = <
k n
n
A
k
F
P T x H

o
Probability of False Alarm
var
( , ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
=
=
for independent random
iables Aand B
P A B P A P B
or P A B P A P B
'
, 0
2
,
2
Pr{ ( ) 1 ; } = <
[ k FA n
k n
T x H P

o
'
2
' 2
2
'
( / 2)
, 0
2
0
( / )
2 1
Pr{ ( ) ; }
2
1

< =
=
}
u
k n
T x H e du
e

o
o

o
'
k n
2
,
2
T (x) T (x) statistics



<
k n

o
T
k
(x)
T
n
(x)
As T(x) under H
0
follows a
central chi-square PDF of

two
degrees

freedom which is
essentially the exponentional PDF
for 2 degrees of freedom. Hence


P
FA






30
' 2
( / )
,
) 1 (1

=
[
k n
FA
P e
o
' 2
( / )
1 (1 )

=
L
P e
FA
o
( / 2 1) = L M I
No. of Doppler
and range bins
examined
( )
( )
' 2
' 2
/
/
( )
1 1
1 1

=
~
=
~
FA
L FA
P LP bin
FA FA
P Le
for a small PFA
P Le
x Lx
o
o
To find the probability of detection we first define a detection as a
threshold crossing in the correct range-Doppler bin. This bins
corresponds to the actual delay and frequency of the signal.
P
D
: The probability that the maximum of the spectrogram occurs in
the correct bin i.e. n = n
0
, k = k
0
, when a signal is present.



For a given delay and Doppler bin , is just the periodogram
statistic for a sinusoid of unknown amplitude and phase.














31
Probability of Detection (P
D
)

0 0
0 0
2
'
, 1
'
, 1
2
Pr{ ( ) ; }
2
2
Pr{ ( ) ; }
= >
= >
D n k
D n k
P T x H
P T x H
o

o
0 0
,
( )
n k
T x
0
n
0
k
0
0 / 0
0 0
0
2
1
'
0 / 0 0
,

0 0 0
max Re( [ ]) ( [ ])} [ ]
, 1,.............. 1
+
=
+ >
= + +

I
n M
k k I
n f
n n
x n n jIm x n n s n n
where n n n n M

0
( ) I f
( )
0
0 0 0
0
1
0 / 0 / 0 0

0 0 0

{ ( [ ]) ( [ ])} [ ]
, 1,........., 1
+
=
= +
= + +

n M
n k I k I
n n
I f real x n n jIm x n n s n n
where n n n n M










.
32
( )
0 0
' 2
'
0 1
'
0
1 2 2
2 2
,
/
Pr{ ( ) ; }
( )
Pr{ ; }
2 2
chi-square PDF of two
degrees of freedom s
;
/ 2
o
sin
'
2
'2 2
( )
2
'2
( /
2

| |
|
= >
=
|
\ .
=
>
=
=
=
D
D
n k
FA
Noncenteral
P I f H
I f
P H
As T x follows a
By u g the relation P
ity parame
Le
ter
MA
P Q
D
P Q
D
M
o

o o
o

_
o
_
D
Detection probability (P ) follows a
chi-square PDF of two degrees of freedom.
2ln
2
2 )
| |
|
|
\ .
L
P
FA
o

Location of Target
Validation of Detection Performance through Monte
Carlo Simulations
Frame Work:
I) Random white Gaussian noise is added to the PN sequences to
obtain the required SNR. Certain delay and Doppler shift is
introduced into this signal.
II) For a selected threshold ( ) complete signal processing algorithm
is run 100,000 times with different realizations of the same noise;
and the peak is compared to a threshold.
III) Probability of detection and probability of false alarm are obtained
as

Probability of false alarm ( ) is found from the following relation.
33
1
D
No. of times the peak (under H ) exceeds the threshold
Probability of detection (P ) =
Total no. of times the algorithm is run i.e. 100,000
0
FA
No. of times the peak (under H )exceeds the threshold
Probability of false Alarm (P ) =
Total no. of times the algorithm is run i.e 100,000
'

FA
P
Comparison of the Detection Performance
34
____ Analytical results
_ _ _ Results by actually
simulating the algorithm

' 2
/
;
(( / 2) 1)

=
=
FA
P Le
L M I
o
' 2
2
'
2 ( )
2 | |
=
|
\ .
D
P Q
_

o
' 2 2
2
( / 2 )
2ln
| |
=
|
\ .
D
M
FA
L
P Q
P
_ o
Code Length M = 256
No. of Pulses collected I = 128
SNR = -9 db
SNR = -10 db
SNR = -11 db


Thank You
35