SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORIES

INTRODUCTION Second language acquisition (SLA) is a complex process, involving many interrelated factors. The term second language acquisition refers to the conscious and subconscious processes by which a language other than mother tongue is learnt in a natural or tutored setting.It covers the development of phonology, lexis, grammar, and pragmatic knowledge but has been largely confined to morphosyntax.

There has been no shortage of theorizing about second language acquisition (SLA). The research literature abounds in approaches, theories, models, laws, and principles. There are a number of theories of SLA. They are; 1. The Acculturation Model ( and closely associated with it, the Nativization Model) 2. Accomodation Theory 3. Discourse Theory 4. The Monitor Model 5. The Variable Competence Model 6. The Universal Hypothesis 7. A Neurofunctional Theory

What is Second Language Acquisition?

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SLA as a uniform phenomenon Second language acquisition vs first language acquisition Second language acquisition vs foreign language acquisition The centrality of syntax and morphology Competence vs performance Acquisition vs learning

SLA as a uniform phenomenon

SLA

is not a uniform and predictable phenomenon. There is no single way in which learners acquire a knowledge of a second language (L2) SLA is a product of many factors pertaining to the learner and the learning situation.

Second language acquisition vs first language acquisition

Contrast

to first language acquisition It is a study of how learners learn as an additional language after they have acquired their mother tongue. The study of language-learner language began with the study of first language (L1) acquisition.

Second language acquisition vs foreign language acquisition

Second

language acquisition is not intended to contrast with foreign language acquisition SLA is used as general term that embraces both untutored (or naturalistic acquisition and tutored (or classroom) acquisition.

The centrality of syntax and morphology

The focus has been on how L2 learners acquire grammatical sub-systems, such as negatives or interrogatives, or grammatical morphemes such as the plural (s) or the definite and indefinite articles. A little is known about L2 phonology, but almost nothing about the acquisition of lexis. SLA researchers pay attention to how learners acquire the ability to communicate and examine how learners use their knowledge to communicate their ideas and intention.

Competence vs performance
According to Chomsky (1965), competence consists of mental representation of linguistic rules which constitute the speaker-hearers internalized grammar. Performance consists of the comprehension and production of language. 1st and 2nd language acquisition studies are interested in how competence is developed. In one sense, SLA research is about performance as it looks at actual utterances.

Acquisition vs learning
The

term acquisition is used to refer to picking up a second language through exposure The term learning is used to refer to the conscious study of a second language. Both acquisition and learning can be used interchangeably, irrespective of whether conscious or subconscious.

Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses: the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the Monitor hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, the Input hypothesis, and the Affective Filter hypothesis

INPUT HYPOTHESIS

"What theory implies, quite simply, is that language acquisition, first or second, occurs when comprehension of real messages occurs, and when the acquirer is not 'on the defensive'... Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill. It does not occur overnight, however. Real language acquisition develops slowly, and speaking skills emerge significantly later than listening skills, even when conditions are perfect.

The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready', recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production." (6-7)

THE RELATIONSHIP OF THEORY TO PRACTICE

In deciding how to develop language teaching methods and materials, one can take three approaches: make use of second language acquisition theory, make use of applied linguistics research, and make use of ideas and intuition from experience. .

These approaches should in fact support each other and lead to common conclusions. While "most current theory may still not be the final word on second language acquisition, it is hoped that teachers will use the ideas and other sources alongside in their classroom and language-learning experiences

The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis is Krashen's explanation of how second language acquisition takes place. So, the Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence.

For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence

The input hypothesis answers the question of how a language acquirer develops competency over time. It states that a language acquirer who is at "level i" must receive comprehensible input that is at "level i+1." "We acquire, in other words, only when we understand language that contains structure that is 'a little beyond' where we are now." This understanding is possible due to using the context of the language we are hearing or reading and our knowledge of the world.

However, instead of aiming to receive input that is exactly at our i+1 level, or instead of having a teacher aim to teach us grammatical structure that is at our i+1 level, we should instead just focus on communication that is understandable. If we do this, and if we get enough of that kind of input, then we will in effect be receiving and thus acquiring out i+1. "Production ability emerges. It is not taught directly."

Evidences for the input hypothesis can be found in the effectiveness of caretaker speech from an adult to a child, of teacher-talk from a teacher to a language student, and of foreigner-talk from a sympathetic conversation partner to a language learner/acquirer. One result of this hypothesis is that language students should be given a initial "silent period" where they are building up acquired competence in a language before they begin to produce it.

 Whenever

language acquirers try to produce language beyond what they have acquired, they tend to use the rules they have already acquired from their first language, thus allowing them to communicate but not really progress in the second language.

Cognitive Models
McLaughlins Attention Processing Model

This model juxtaposes processing mechanisms (controlled and automatic) and categories of attention to form four cells. Controlled processes are capacity limited and temporaryand automatic processes are relatively permanent (Mc Laughlin). Controlled processing as typical of anyone learning a new skill in which very few elements of the skill can be retained.

 Automatic

processes refer to processing in a more accomplished skill brain can manage information simultaneously. The automatizing of data is accomplished by a process of restructuring in which the components of a task are coordinated, integrated or reorganized into new units, thereby allowing the old components to be replaced by a more efficient procedure

Possible second language performance as a function of information processing procedures and attention to formal properties of language (McLaughlin) (Table 1)

ATTENTION TO FORMAL PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE

INFORMATION PROCESSING
(Cell A) (Cell B) Performance based Performance in a on formal rule test situation learning (Cell C) (Cell D) Performance based Performance in on implicit learning communication or analogic learning situations

Focal
Peripheral

 Processing

can occur with either focal or peripheral attention to the task at handfocusing attention centrally or on the periphery. While many controlled processes are focal, it can also be peripheral in instance when a child learns first language or learning skills without any instruction. Similarly, automatic processes are peripheral but some can be focal. Virtually every act of performing something, focal and peripheral attention actually occur simultaneously.

 In

Table 2, it is important to note that these cells are described in terms of ones processing of and attention to language forms (grammatical, phonological, discourse rules and categories, lexical choices, etc) If peripheral attention is given to language forms in language classroom, focal attention is being given to meaning, function, purpose or person. Based on Table 2, child 2nd language may consist almost exclusively of peripheral (cells C and D) attention to language forms.

 Most

adult 2nd language learning of language forms in the classroom involves a movement frommcell A through a combination of C and B, to D. Peripheral, automatic attentionprocessing of language is an ultimate communicative goal for language learners.

Table 2: Practical applications of McLaughlins attentionprocessing model

CONTROLLED: new skill, capacity limited AUTOMATIC: well trained, practiced skill capacity is relatively unlimited
keeping

FOCAL Intentional attention

Grammatical explanation of a specific point Word definition Copy a written model The first stages of memorizing a dialog Prefabricated patterns Various discrete-point exercises

an eye out for something Advanced L2 learner focuses on modals, clause information, etc. Monitoring oneself while talking or writing Scanning Editing, peer-editing
Open-ended

PERIPHERAL

Simple

greetings The later stages of memorizing a dialog TPR/ Natural Approach New L2 learner successfully completes a brief conversation

group work Rapid reading, skimming Free writes Normal conversational exchanges of some length

Made a distinction between explicit and implicit linguistic knowledge Explicit Linguistic knowledge - the facts that a person knows about language and the ability to articulate those facts in some way - differs from McLaughlins focal attention in explicit signals Implicit Linguistic knowledge -knowledge is information that is automatically and spontaneously used in language tasks - enable a learner to perform language but not necessarily to cite rules governing the performance

Cognitive Models Implicit and Explicit Models

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST MODEL

Interaction

hypothesis that comprehensible input is the result of modified interaction Associated with current approaches to 1st & 2nd language acquisition emphasizes on the dynamic nature of interplay between learners and their peers, teachers. Interaction and input as two major items in the process of acquisition. Emphasis on the language classroom as a place where contexts for interaction are carefully designed.

AN OVERVIEW OF TEACHING APPROACHES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

Popular language teaching methods today include grammar-translation, audio-lingualism, cognitive-code, the direct method, the natural approach, total physical response, and Suggestopedia. How do these methods fare when they are evaluated by Second Language Acquisition theory? Each method will be evaluated using the following criteria: Requirements for optimal input -- comprehensible -interesting/relevant -- not grammatically sequenced -quantity -- low filter level -- provides tools for conversational management Learning restricted to: -- Rules that are easily learned and applied, and not acquired yet -- Monitor users -Situations when the learner has adequate time and a focus on form

GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD

Grammar-translation usually consists of an explanation of a grammatical rule, with some example sentences, a bilingual vocabulary list, a reading section exemplifying the grammatical rule and incorporating the vocabulary, and exercises to practice using the grammar and vocabulary. Most of these classes are taught in the student's first language. The grammartranslation method provides little opportunity for acquisition and relies too heavily on learning.

DIRECT METHOD
Several

approaches have been called the "direct method"; the approach evaluated here involves all discussion in the target language. The teacher uses examples of language in order to inductively teach grammar; students are to try to guess the rules of the language by the examples provided.

 Teachers

interact with the students a lot, asking them questions about relevant topics and trying to use the grammatical structure of the day in the conversation. Accuracy is sought and errors are corrected. This method provides more comprehensible input than the methods discussed so far, but it still focuses too much on grammar