You are on page 1of 20

UNIT 3: SYNTAX

LESSON ONE Words, Phrases and Clauses

What is syntax?

Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences. Syntax analyzes how words combine to form sentences. Sentences are made up of smaller units, called phrases (which in turn are made up of words).

Why is syntax important?

We speak in sentences not in words. To understand the structure of a language it is necessary to study the structure of sentences. If we learn to analyze the structure of sentences, we will also learn to analyze their meaning. The study of syntax is the study of the function of words, which is necessary to understand the structure and the meaning of a language.

The basic functions


Subject: obligatory element; it specifies the entity about which we will say something (the doer of the action, the entity described, etc.) Object: obligatory element, it completes the meaning of a word or sentence. Subject or Object Complement: obligatory element that adds a description of the subject or the object. These function also receive the names of Attribute and Predicative. Modifier: optional element; adds additional information that specifies a noun Adverbial: optional element; modifies a verb, adjective or adverb

The structure of sentences


word word word word word word word word

phrase

phrase

phrase

phrase

clause

What is a sentence?

A sentence is basically a string of words that follow the grammatical rules of a language. A sentence expresses a complete thought A sentence is made up of phrases. At the very least a sentence contains a verb phrase (also known as the predicate) and a subject. We will use the terms SENTENCE and CLAUSE indistinctively.

Types of sentences

We can distinguish two types of sentences:

MAIN CLAUSES: they express complete thoughts and are independent of other words or sentences. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES: they are dependent on other words and help to complete or modify the meaning of the complete sentence. They cannot exist independently of the words they modify or complete.

What is a phrase?

A phrase is a part of a sentence. It does not express a complete thought. A phrase is a group of words that function as a single unit. Usually they can be substituted by a pronominal form. All phrases have one word which is the nucleus, the head. The head of a phrase determines the kind of phrase we have: Noun Phrase, Adjective Phrase, Adverb Phrase, Prepositional Phrase or Verb Phrase.

Noun phrases

A Noun Phrase (NP) is a phrase that is made up of at least one noun (or a pronoun). The noun is the head of the NP. NPs usually function as: Subjects: THE MAN spoke loudly. Objects: I met YOUR FRIEND yesterday. Ill see you after THE CLASS. Subject Complements: She is A DOCTOR. Adverbials: Anna got married LAST MONTH.

Adjective phrases

An Adjective Phrase (AP) is a phrase that is made up of at least one adjective. The adjective is the head of the NP. APs usually function as: Modifiers: I saw a SMALL child. Subject Complements: She is not HAPPY. Object Complements: I consider Peter STUPID.

Adverb phrases

An Adverb Phrase (AdvP) is a phrase that is made up of at least one adverb. The adverb is the head of the AdvP. AdvPs usually function as: Adverbials: Andy was VERY late. Sally works HARD.

Prepositional phrases

A Prepositional Phrase (PP) is a phrase that is made up of at least one preposition usually followed by a NP that functions as the object of the preposition. The preposition is the head of the PP. PPs usually function as: Adverbials: Anna got married IN JULY. Objects: I put the book ON THE TABLE. I bought a ring FOR MY MOTHER.

Verb phrases

A Verb Phrase (VP) is a phrase that is made up of at least one verb. Verb phrases often contain noun phrases, prepositional phrases or adverb phrases that function as objects or adverbials of the verb. The verb is the head of the VP. VPs function as the head of the clause.

Kinds of Verbs

Verbs can be classified in many different ways. We will distinguish different types of verbs according to the following aspects:

according to the meaning and function: lexical, linking or auxiliary according to the number of objects it requires: intransitive, transitive or ditransitive according to the form: finite or non-finite

Meaning and function


Lexical verbs are main verbs that add the primary meaning. A main clause must have one and only one lexical verb. I READ a novel. Linking verbs are verbs that do not add much meaning. They link subjects and subject complements. Peter BECAME bored. Auxiliary verbs are verbs that are used to help lexical or linking verbs by adding grammatical information (aspect, tense, modality). Auxiliary verbs do not add lexical meaning. Auxiliary verbs need not be present in a main clause, but sometimes there are more than one auxiliary verb in a single clause. Andrew MAY HAVE BEEN studying too hard.

The number of objects


Intransitive verbs do not need any objects to complement their meaning. Peter had to RUN. Transitive verbs need one object to complement their meaning. The object may be a Noun Phrase or a Prepositional Phrase. I read AN INTERESTING NEWPAPER ARTICLE. Peter looks after HIS BROTHER. Ditransitive verbs need two objects to complement their meaning. The objects may be two Noun Phrases or a Noun Phrase and a Prepositional Phrase I told MY SISTER A SECRET. Pam gave A PRESENT TO MY BROTHER.

The form (I)


All verbs have finite and non-finite forms. Finite verbs are verbs that are inflected for tense, person and number. In a complex verb there can only be one finite form and it is always at the beginning of the complex verb. A main clause must contain a finite verb. Sean COMES from Ireland. Laura SHOULD stay home. Non-finite verbs are verbs that are not inflected for tense, person and number. In a complex verb there can be several non-finite forms. In a main clause the non-finite forms always follow a finite verb. John has GONE to London. Laura should STAY home.

The form (II)

The non-finite forms of verbs are: The bare infinitive go, come, speak The to-infinitive to go, to come, to speak The past participle gone, come, spoken The ing form going, coming, speaking

Lexical Verbs

Lexical verbs can be divided into two major groups: Dynamic verbs are verbs that indicate actions, activities, events that have a beginning, a middle and an end go, come, speak, eat, give, paint, Stative verbs are verbs that do not indicate actions, but states of being. They usually indicate

Perception: see, taste, smell, hear Cognition: understand, know, think Possession: own, have Mental states: hate, like, need

Dynamic vs. Stative Verbs

Dynamic verbs can appear in the progressive. Stative verbs cannot.


I am reading a book *I am needing a favor.

Linking verbs are always stative. Some verbs may be used, with a different meaning as dynamic or stative verbs.
I can see someone right now. (stative) I am seeing someone right now. (dynamic)

You might also like