GRID

Technical Institute
This document is the exclusive property of Alstom Grid and shall not be
transmitted by any means, copied, reproduced or modified without the prior
written consent of Alstom Grid Technical Institute. All rights reserved.

GRID
Technical Institute
This document is the exclusive property of Alstom Grid and shall not be
transmitted by any means, copied, reproduced or modified without the prior
written consent of Alstom Grid Technical Institute. All rights reserved.
Current Transformers
s 3
Current Transformer Function
Reduce power system current to lower value for
measurement.

Insulate secondary circuits from the primary.

Permit the use of standard current ratings for secondary
equipment.
REMEMBER :
The relay performance DEPENDS on the C.T which
drives it !
s 4
Instrument Transformer Standards
IEC IEC 185:1987 CTs
IEC 44-6:1992 CTs
IEC 186:1987 VTs

EUROPEAN BS 7625 VTs
BS 7626 CTs
BS 7628 CT+VT

BRITISH BS 3938:1973 CTs
BS 3941:1975 VTs

AMERICAN ANSI C51.13.1978 CTs and VTs

CANADIAN CSA CAN3-C13-M83 CTs and VTs

AUSTRALIAN AS 1675-1986 CTs

s 5
Current Transformer Construction
BAR PRIMARY WOUND PRIMARY
Primary
Secondary
s 6
Bar Primary Type Current Transformer(s)
Primary
Conductor
Ring Type
Current
Transformer
Primary
Insulation
Core
Secondary
Winding
s 7
Typical Protection Bar-Primary Current Transformer
RELAY
1A ?
1000A ?
1000 turns sec. ?
Insulation covered wire,
giving inter-turn
insulation & secondary
to core insulation
Generator, or
system voltage
source
Feeder or Bus-bar
forming 1 turn of primary
circuit
Insulation to stop flash-over
from HV primary to core &
secondary circuit
Laminated strip wound steel
toroidal core
s 8
Polarity
P2 P1
I
s

S2 S1
I
p

Inst. Current directions :-

P1 P2
S1 S2 Externally
s 9
Differential Protection (1)
P2
P1
I
FP1

I
FS

I
FS1
S2
S1
P1 P2
S1 S2
R
I
FP2

I
FS2

Operation for Internal Faults
s 10
Differential Protection (2)
P2
P1
I
FP

I
FS
S2
S1
P1 P2
S1 S2
R
I
FS

Stability for External Faults
s 11
Differential Protection (3)
I
FP

I
FS

S2
S1 S1 S2
R
Maloperation due to Incorrect Connections
I
FP

I
FS

2I
FS

s 12
Basic Theory
s 13
Basic Theory (1)
I
P

I
S

R

1 Primary Turn
N Secondary Turns

For an ideal transformer :-

PRIMARY AMPERE TURNS = SECONDARY AMPERE TURNS
I
P
= N x I
S

s 14
Basic Theory (2)
I
P

I
S

R
E
S


For I
S
to flow through R there must be some potential -
E
S
= the E.M.F.

E
S
= I
S
x R

E
S
is produced by an alternating flux in the core.

E
S
d
dt
s 15
Basic Theory (3)
I
P

N
P

N
S

E
K

I
S

Z
B

Z
CT


V
O/P
= I
S
Z
B
= E
K
- I
S
Z
CT

s 16
Basic Formulae
Circuit Voltage Required :

E
S
= I
S
(Z
B
+ Z
CT
+ Z
L
) Volts
where :-

I
S
= Secondary Current of C.T. (Amperes)

Z
B
= Connected External Burden (Ohms)

Z
CT
= C.T Winding Impedance (Ohms)

Z
L
= Lead Loop Resistance (Ohms)

Require E
K
> E
S

s 17
Basic Formulae (1)
Maximum Secondary Winding Voltage :

E
K
= 4.44 x B A f N Volts . 1

where :-

E
K
= Secondary Induced Volts
(knee-point voltage)

B = Flux Density (Tesla)

A = Core Cross-sectional Area
(square metres)

f = System Frequency (Hertz)

N = Number of Turns
s 18
Simple Selection Example
Example Calculation :

C.T. Ratio = 2000 / 5A Max Flux Density = 1.6
T
R
S
= 0.31 Ohms Core C.S.A = 20 cm
2

I
MAX
Primary = 40 kA

Find maximum secondary burden permissible if no saturation is to occur.

Solution : N = 2000 / 5 = 400 Turns
I
S MAX
= 40,000 / 400 = 100 Amps

From equation 1 the knee point voltage is :-

V
K
= (4.44 x 1.6 x 20 x 50 x 400) = 284 Volts
10
4


Therefore Maximum Burden = 284 / 100
= 2.84 Ohms

Hence Maximum CONNECTED burden :
2.84 - 0.31 = 2.53 Ohms
s 19
Knee
Point
Material : Cross
Flux Density (B)
Tesla (Wb/m
2
)
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Magnetizing Force (H)
Ampere-Turns / mm
(Magnetic Field Strength : H, A/m)
Mag Curves
s 20
E
S

(Secondary
E.M.F.)
(Magnetising Current) I
e

E
S
= 4.44 N f A B = K
v
B
where :- K
v
= 4.44 N f A
(B in Wb/m
2
; A in m
2
)

I
e
= H . L = K
i
. H
N
where :-
K
i
= L/N
L = mean magnetic path
in metres
H = amp. Turns / metre
I
e
= Amps
Mag Curves Cont...
s 21
M
u
l
t
i
p
l
y

B
y

K
V

t
o

o
b
t
a
i
n

V
o
l
t
s

Multiply By K
i
to obtain Amps
B
H
K
V
x B = Volts (E)
K
i
x H = Amps
Units : K
V
= E = 4.44 N f A (m
2
x turns)
B
K
i
= I
e
= L (m / turns)
H N

Note : L = Mean Magnetic Path

Mean Magnetic Path = 2tr

r = r
o
- r
i
+ r
i
2
r
o

r
i

r
Mag Curves Cont...
s 22
Magnetisation Characteristic (1)
C.T Ratio 100/5 A connected to CDG11.
Relay Burden = 2 VA (at 10% rated I)

Problem :-

Calculate the necessary values of K
v
and K
i
to provide the
necessary output at ten times setting
(Assume maximum flux density before saturation = 1.6 Tesla)
s 23
Magnetisation Characteristic (2)
(i) Bar Type Primary

CDG current setting = 10% = 0.5 A
Volts required to operate relay = 2 / 0.5 = 4 V
Therefore voltage required at 10 times setting = 10 x 4 = 40 V
Hence for a flux density of 1.6T the C.T. should have an output of at
least 40 V.
With bar primary, number of turns = 20.
E
k
= 4.44 B A f N
= 4.44 x 1.6 x A x 10
-4
x 20 x 50
A = 40 / 0.71 = 56.3 cm
2

Assume a stacking factor of 0.92
=> Total C.S.A. = 61.2 cm
2

Assume I.D. = 18cm, O.D. = 30cm & Depth = 10.2cm
K
V
= AN / 45 = (56.3 x 20) / 45 = 25
K
i
= L / N = 24TT / 20 = 3.77 cm / turn
s 24
Magnetisation Characteristic (3)
(ii) Wound Type Primary

Assume primary has 5 turns
- Therefore secondary has 100 turns
E
k
= 4.44 B A f N
= 4.44 x 1.6 x A x 10
-4
x 100 x 50
A = 40 / 3.55 = 11.26 cm
2

Assume a stacking factor of 0.92
=> Total C.S.A. = 12.24 cm
2

Assume I.D. = 18cm, O.D. = 30cm &
Depth = 2.04cm
K
V
= AN / 45 = (11.26 x 100) / 45 = 25
K
i
= L / N = 24TT / 100 = 0.754 cm/turn

s 25
Low Reactance Design
With evenly distributed winding the leakage
reactance is very low and usually ignored.

Thus Z
CT
~ R
CT

s 26
Knee-Point Voltage Definition
I
ek

+10% V
k

+ 50 % I
ek

V
k

Exciting Current (I
e
)
E
x
c
i
t
i
n
g

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
S
)

s 27
C.T. Equivalent Circuit
Z
b

N
P
1

Z
CT

S
1

V
t
Z
e

I
s

I
p

I
p/N

I
e

E
s

I
p
= Primary rating of C.T. I
e
= Secondary excitation current
N = C.T. ratio I
s
= Secondary current
Z
b
= Burden of relays in ohms E
s
= Secondary excitation voltage
(r+jx) V
t
= Secondary terminal voltage
Z
CT
= C.T. secondary winding across the C.T. terminals
impedance in ohms (r+jx)
Z
e
= Secondary excitation
impedance in ohms (r+jx)

s 28
Phasor Diagram
I
c
E
p

I
p/N

I
e

I
s

I
e

I
m

E
s

u
E
p
= Primary voltage I
m
= Magnetising current
E
s
= Secondary voltage I
e
= Excitation current
u = Flux I
p
= Primary current
I
c
= Iron losses (hysteresis & I
s
= Secondary current
eddy currents)
s 29
Saturation
s 30
Steady State Saturation (1)
100A
100/1
1A
E
1 ohm
E =
1V
100A
100/1
1A
E
10
ohm
E =
10V
100A
100/1
1A
E
100
ohm
E =
100V
100A
100/1
1A
E
1000
ohm
E = ?
s 31
Steady State Saturation (2)
Time
+V
-V
0V
A
u
Assume :- Zero residual flux
Switch on at point A
s 32
Steady State Saturation (3)
Time
+V
-V
0V
C
u
Assume :- Zero residual flux
Switch on at point C
s 33
Steady State Saturation (4)
Time
+V
-V
0V
B
u
Assume :- Zero residual flux
Switch on at point B
s 34
Steady State Saturation (5)
Mag Core
Saturation
+V
-V
0V
Mag Core
Saturation
Time
s 35
Steady State Saturation (6)
u
Time
+V
-V
0V
+V
-V
0V
Mag Core
Saturation
Mag Core
Saturation
Output lost due to
steady state
saturation
Actual Output
Voltage
Prospective
Output Voltage
s 36
Transient Saturation
L
1

R
1

Z
1

i
1

v = V
M

sin (wt + o)
v = V
M

sin (wt + o)
TRANSIENT STATE STEADY
e . ) - ( sin - ) - (wt sin
e . ) - ( sin
Z
V
) - (wt sin
Z
V
i
1
L / t
1
R -
1 1
1
L / t
1
R -
1
M
1
M
1
+ =
C I C + I + =
C = C + + =
o o
o o

1
M
1
1
1
1 -
1
2
1 1
Z
V

R
wL
tan
L w R Z - : where
= I
= C
+ =

2 2
s 37
Transient Saturation : Resistive Burden
FLUX
CURRENT
Primary Current
Secondary Current
Actual Flux
Mag Current
Required Flux

SAT

0
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 M
s 38
CT Types
s 39
Current Transformer Function
Two basic groups of C.T.

Measurement C.T.s
Limits well defined

Protection C.T.s
Operation over wide range of currents

Note : They have DIFFERENT characteristics
s 40
Measuring C.T.s
B
Protection C.T.
Measuring C.T.
H
Measuring C.T.s
Require good accuracy up to
approx 120% rated current.
Require low saturation level to
protect instruments, thus use
nickel iron alloy core with low
exciting current and knee
point at low flux density.
Protection C.T.s
Accuracy not as important as
above.
Require accuracy up to many
times rated current, thus use
grain orientated silicon steel
with high saturation flux
density.
s 41
CT Errors
s 42
Current Transformer Errors
Z
S

Z
b
Z
e

I
s
I
p

I
e

E
s

I
p/N

I
e

I
q

I
e

E
s

u
E
p

I
c

I
p/N

I
e

I
s

I
s

s 43
Current Transformer Error
Transformer Error vs Primary Current
Error
Rated
Current
Primary Current
Phase Error
Current Error
Errors can be reduced by :-
1. Using better quality magnetic material
2. Shortening the mean magnetic path
3. Reducing the flux density in the core
s 44
Current Transformer Errors
Current Error Definition.

Error in magnitude of the secondary current, expressed as a percentage, given by
:-

Current error % = 100 (k
n
I
S
- I
p
)
I
p


k
n
= Rated Transmission Ratio
I
p
= Actual Primary Current
I
s
= Actual Secondary Current

Current Error is :-

+ve : When secondary current is HIGHER than the rated
nominal value.
-ve : When secondary current is LOWER than the rated
nominal value.

s 45
Current Transformer Errors
Phase Error Definition.

The displacement in phase between the primary and secondary
current vectors, the direction of the vectors being chosen so the
angle is zero for a perfect transformer.

Phase Error is :-

+ve : When secondary current vector LEADS the
primary current vector.
-ve : When secondary current vector LAGS the
primary current vector.

s 46
Current Transformer Ratings
s 47
Current Transformer Ratings (1)
Rated Burden

Value of burden upon which accuracy claims are based
Usually expressed in VA
Preferred values :-
2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 30 VA

Continuous Rated Current

Usually rated primary current

Short Time Rated Current

Usually specified for 0.5, 1, 2 or 3 secs
No harmful effects
Usually specified with the secondary shorted

Rated Secondary Current

Commonly 1, 2 or 5 Amps
s 48
Current Transformer Ratings (2)
Rated Dynamic Current

Ratio of :-
I
PEAK
: I
RATED

(I
PEAK
= Maximum current C.T. can withstand without
suffering any damage).

Accuracy Limit Factor - A.L.F.
(or Saturation Factor)

Ratio of :-
I
PRIMARY
: I
RATED

up to which the C.T. rated accuracy is maintained.

e.g. 200 / 1A C.T. with an A.L.F. = 5 will maintain its
accuracy for I
PRIMARY
< 5 x 200 = 1000 Amps

s 49
Choice of Ratio
Clearly, the primary rating
I
P
> normal current in the circuit
if thermal (continuous) rating is not to be exceeded.
Secondary rating is usually 1 or 5 Amps (0.5 and 2 Amp
are also used).
If secondary wiring route length is greater than 30
metres - 1 Amp secondaries are preferable.
A practical maximum ratio is 3000 / 1.
If larger primary ratings are required (e.g. for large
generators), can use 20 Amp secondary together with
interposing C.T.
e.g. 5000 / 20 - 20 / 1
s 50
Current Transformer Designation
Class P
Specified in terms of :-
i) Rated burden
ii) Class (5P or 10P)
iii) Accuracy limit factor (A.L.F.)
Example :-
15 VA 10P 20
To convert VA and A.L.F. into useful volts
V
useful
~ VA x ALF
I
N


s 51
BS 3938
Classes :- 5P, 10P. X
Designation (Classes 5P, 10P)
(Rated VA) (Class)
(ALF)

Multiple of rated current (I
N
) up to which declared
accuracy will be maintained with rated burden
connected.
5P or 10P.
Value of burden in VA on which accuracy claims
are based.
(Preferred values :- 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 30 VA)
Z
B
= rated burden in ohms
= Rated VA
I
N
2

s 52
Protection Current Transformers
Table 3 - Limits of Error for Accuracy Class 5P and 10P

Phase Displacement at
rated primary current
Accuracy
Class
Current Error at
rated primary
current (%)
Minutes Centiradians
Composite Error
(%) at rated
accuracy limit
primary current
5P
10P

60

1.8 5
10
s 53
Interposing CT
s 54
Interposing CT
N
P

N
S
Z
B

Z
CT

LINE
CT
Burden presented to line CT
= Z
CT
+ Z
B
x N
P
2
N
S
2

s 55
Seen by main ct :- 0.1 + (1)
2
(2 x 0.5 + 0.4 + 1) = 0.196O
(5)
Burden on main ct :- I
2
R
= 25 x 0.196 = 4.9VA
Burden on a main ct of required ratio :-





Total connected burden = 2 x 0.5 + 1 = 2O
Connected VA = I
2
R
= 2
The I/P ct consumption was about 3VA.
NEG. 1A
0.1O 0.1O 0.4O 1VA @ 1A
1.0O
R
0.5O
5A
500/5
0.5O
R
1.0O 500/1
s 56
Current Transformer Designation
s 57
Current Transformer Designation
Class X

Specified in terms of :-

i) Rated Primary Current

ii) Turns Ratio (max. error = 0.25%)

iii) Knee Point Voltage

iv) Mag Current (at specified voltage)

v) Secondary Resistance (at 75C)
s 58
Choice of Current Transformer
Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays
Class P Specification
A.L.F. = 5 usually sufficient
For high settings (5 - 15 times C.T rating)
A.L.F. = relay setting

IDMT Overcurrent Relays
Generally Class 10P
Class 5P where grading is critical

Note : A.L.F. X V.A < 150

Differential Protection
Class X Specification
Protection relies on balanced C.T output
s 59
Selection Example
s 60
Burden on Current Transformers
R
CT

R
CT

R
CT

I
F

I
F

R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L

R
r
R
r
R
r

R
r

R
CT

R
CT

R
CT

I
F

I
F

R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L

R
r
R
r
R
r

R
r

1. Overcurrent : R
CT
+ R
L
+ R
r
2. Earth : R
CT
+ 2R
L
+ 2R
r

s 61
Overcurrent Relay V
K
Check
Assume values : I
f max
= 7226 A R
CT
= 0.26 O
C.T = 1000 / 5 A R
r
= 0.02 O
7.5 VA 10P 20 R
L
= 0.15 O

Check to see if V
K
is large enough :
Required voltage = V
S
= I
F
(R
CT
+ R
r
+ R
L
)
= 7226 x 5 (0.26 + 0.02 + 0.15) = 36.13 x 0.43 = 15.54 Volts
1000

Current transformer V
K
approximates to :-
V
K
~ VA x ALF + R
CT
x I
N
x ALF
I
n
= 7.5 x 20 + 0.26 x 5 x 20 = 56 Volts
5

V
K
> V
S
therefore C.T V
K
is adequate
s 62
Earth Fault Relay V
K
Check
Assume values : As per overcurrent.

Note For earth fault applications require to be able to pass
10 x relay setting.

Check to see if V
K
is large enough : V
K
= 56 Volts

Total load connected = 2R
L
+ R
CT
+ 2R
r

= 2 x 0.15 + 0.26 + 2 x 0.02

Maximum secondary current
= 56 = 93.33A
0.6

Typical earth fault setting = 30% I
N

= 1.5A

Therefore C.T can provide > 60 x setting

C.T V
K
is adequate

s 63
Voltage Transformers
s 64
Voltage Transformers
Provides isolation from high voltages

Must operate in the linear region to prevent
accuracy problems - Do not over specify VT

Must be capable of driving the burden, specified by
relay manufacturer

Protection class VT will suffice


s 65
Typical Working Points on a B-H Curve
Flux Density
B
Magnetising Force
AT/m
Cross C.T.s & Power Transformers
Saturation
V.T.s
Protection C.T. (at full load)
H
1000 2000 3000
1.6





1.0








0.5
Tesla
s 66
Types of Voltage Transformers
Two main basic types are available:

Electromechanical VT`s
Similar to a power transformer
May not be economical above 132kV

Capacitor VT`s (CVT)
Used at high voltages
Main difference is that CVT has a
capacitor divider on the front end.
s 67
Electromagnetic Voltage Transformer
Z
B
(burden)
N
P
/ N
S

= K
n

V
P

R
P

I
P

L
P

L
M

I
M

I
C

R
e

V
S

E
P
= E
S
I
e

R
S

I
S

L
S

s 68
Basic Circuit of a Capacitor V.T.
C
1
C
2
V
P
V
C2
V
i
L

T

V
S
Z
B
s 69
Ferro-resonance
The exciting impedance of auxiliary transformer T and the
capacitance of the potential divider form a resonant circuit.

May oscillate at a sub normal frequency

Resonant frequency close to one-third value of system
frequency

Manifests itself as a rise in output voltage, r.m.s. value
being 25 to 50 per cent above normal value

Use resistive burden to dampen the effect


s 70
VT Earthing
Primary Earthing
Earth at neutral point
Required for phase-ground measurement at relay

Secondary Earthing
Required for safety
Earth at neutral point
When no neutral available - earth yellow phase
(VERY COMMON)
No relevance for protection operation
s 71
VT Construction
5 Limb
Used when zero sequence measurement is
required (primary must also be earthed)
Three Single Phase
Used when zero sequence measurement is
required (primary must also be earthed)
3 Limb
Used where no zero sequence measurement is
required
V Connected (Open Delta)
No yellow phase
Cost effective
Two phase-phase voltages
No ground fault measurement

s 72
VT Connections
a b c

a b c

A B C N

da

dn

a b c n

V Connected

Broken Delta

s 73
VT Construction - Residual
Used to detect earthfault
Useful where current operated protection cannot be
used
Connect all secondary windings in series
Sometimes referred to as `Broken Delta`
Residual Voltage is 3 times zero sequence voltage
VT must be 5 Limb or 3 single phase units
Primary winding must be earthed

s 74
Voltage Factors Vf
Vf is the upper limit of operating voltage.

Important for correct relay operation.

Earthfaults cause displacement of system neutral,
particularly in the case of unearthed or impedance
earthed systems.


s 75
Protection of VTs
H.R.C. Fuses on primary side

Fuses may not have sufficient interrupting capability

Use MCB

GRID
Technical Institute
This document is the exclusive property of Alstom Grid and shall not be
transmitted by any means, copied, reproduced or modified without the prior
written consent of Alstom Grid Technical Institute. All rights reserved.