Energy is defined as capacity of a system to enable it to do work 'work' refers to activities by the body - movement (walking, running, lifting) - Thinking. Body become the energy converter, uses energy from food to operate various organ to: - supply heat that maintain body temperature - do external works (movement) - Build stored energy supply Small percentage (5%) of energy from the food is excreted through urine and feces. Energy that consumed by appears as body heat. This
Energy is defined as capacity of a system to enable it to do work 'work' refers to activities by the body - movement (walking, running, lifting) - Thinking. Body become the energy converter, uses energy from food to operate various organ to: - supply heat that maintain body temperature - do external works (movement) - Build stored energy supply Small percentage (5%) of energy from the food is excreted through urine and feces. Energy that consumed by appears as body heat. This
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Energy is defined as capacity of a system to enable it to do work 'work' refers to activities by the body - movement (walking, running, lifting) - Thinking. Body become the energy converter, uses energy from food to operate various organ to: - supply heat that maintain body temperature - do external works (movement) - Build stored energy supply Small percentage (5%) of energy from the food is excreted through urine and feces. Energy that consumed by appears as body heat. This
Copyright:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
School of Health Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia CONTENTS
• Conservation of energy in the body
• Energy changes in the body • Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) • Efficiency of work • Heat loss from the body CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN THE BODY • Energy is defined as capacity of a system to enable it to do work • The ‘work’ refers to activities by the body – Movement (walking, running, lifting) – Thinking • Under resting (basal) condition, the total energy in the body is consumed into: – Muscles and heart (25%) – The brain (19%) – Kidneys (10%) – Liver and spleen (27%) – Others e.g. respiration, digestive (19%) CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN THE BODY • Fro the law of conservation of energy – Energy cannot be created or destroyed – Energy can change from one form to another • All the work by the body is carried out by the change of energy from one form to another • Body’s source of energy (fuel) is through the food we consume – Chemical energy • Food is in indirect form of energy. Thus it is chemically changed by the body into molecules that combine with oxygen molecules (ATP) CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN THE BODY • Body become the energy converter, uses energy from food to operate various organ to: – Supply heat that maintain body temperature – Do external works (movement) – Build stored energy supply • Small percentage (5%) of energy from the food is excreted through urine and feces • The energy that consumed by appears as body heat. This heat is used to maintain the body temperature along with heat from surrounding. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN THE BODY
• Conservation of energy in the body is according to
the first law of thermodynamic where: ∆U = ∆Q − ∆W Where ∆U = change of energy in the body ∆Q = heat loss/gain from the body ∆W = the work done by the body With assumption: 6.No food/drink taken during the interval 7.No urine/feces excreted during the interval CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN THE BODY
• ∆U is positive if energy increased from
initial energy (gain of energy) and negative if energy decrease from the initial energy (loss/consumed) • ∆Q is positive if heat is added into the body and negative if heat is released to surrounding. ∆Q is equal to zero if the temperature remain constant CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN THE BODY • As this process occurs in time interval, the equation becomes: ∆U/∆t = ∆Q/∆t − ∆W/∆t where ∆U/∆t is the rate of change of stored energy ∆Q/∆t is the rate of heat loss/gain ∆W/∆t is the rate of doing work CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN THE BODY
• The second equation limits the system in a
time interval ∆t. • This limits the fraction of stored energy ∆U that converted into useful work ∆W • This is later known as the second law of thermodynamics ENERGY CHANGE IN THE BODY • The SI unit for energy is Newton-meter (Nm) or Joule where 1Nm = 1Joule • the other unit for energy is calorie where 1Joule = 4184 calorie • From the second equation, the body converts the stored energy into mechanical work. The work is defined as the total energy transferred to perform the work • Power, P is the rate of work done with SI unit in Joule/second (J/s) or watt, W ENERGY CHANGE IN THE BODY • Physiologists and nutritionist use – kilocalories (kcal) for measuring the energy contained in food (fuel) – Kcal/min for measuring rate of heat production ∆Q/∆t • These units are similar to the unit calorie used in determining general form of energy 1kcal = 1 Calorie ENERGY CHANGE IN THE BODY • Relationship between Joule, kcal, Calorie and power can be summarized as: 1 kcal = 1 Calorie 1 kcal = 4184 J 1 kcal/min = 4184J/60s = 69.7W 100 W = 1.43 kcal/min 1kcal/hr = 4184J/(60X60s) = 1.162W ENERGY CHANGE IN THE BODY • The early idea of transformation from food (fuel) into energy was suggested by Antoine Lavoisier (1784) • He suggested that the food is oxidized after consumption. His suggestion was supported by the prove that oxygen consumption increase during digestion process • This was later proved to be wrong. The correct explanation is oxidation of food occurs within cell (combustion) as the cell is the true consumer of the food ENERGY CHANGE IN THE BODY • During oxidation (combustion) in cell, the energy of metabolism is released in form of heat • The rate of energy production is called metabolic rate • Considering glucose C6H12O6 as main source of fuel, the oxidation of glucose is given by equation C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2+ 2.87 × 107J ENERGY CHANGE IN THE BODY • From the equation, – 1 mole of glucose combine with 6 moles of oxygen producing 6 moles of water, 6 moles of CO2 releasing 2.87 × 107J energy (heat) • Therefore we can calculate proportionality of each molecules that producing energy 3. Energy release by each kg of glucose: 1 mole glucose = 0.18kg of glucose 2.87 × 107J / 0.18kg = 16MJ/kg ENERGY CHANGE IN THE BODY • Energy release for each m3 of oxygen: 1 mole gas at STP = 22.4x10-3m3 2.87 × 107J / 6 x (22.4x10-3m3) = 21MJ/m3 4. Volume of oxygen per kg of fuel (glucose) 6 x (22.4x10-3m3) / 0.18kg glucose = 0.75m3/kg • Volume of CO2 produced per kg of fuel 6 x (22.4x10-3m3) / 0.18kg glucose = 0.75m3/kg • Moles of CO2 produced per each mole of O2 1 mole CO2 = 1 mole O2 ENERGY CHANGE IN THE BODY BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR) • Defined as consumption of energy when completely at rest • Amount of energy needed to perform minimal body function – Breathing – Pumping blood through arteries • Normal basal metabolic rate is 92 kcal/hr or 100W • Varies by sex, age, height, weight • Depends primarily upon thyroid function – Normal vs hyperthyroid BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR) • The basal metabolic rate was first carried out using 24 hours thyroid uptake test • Thyroid uses iodine in the hormone to regulate metabolic function • Amount of iodine taken from food become indicator of metabolic rate • Used widely during World War II as Iodine-131 with 8-days half life easily available BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR) • A small dose (37kBq) of Iodine-131 was given to patient orally – After 24 hours, the radioactivity in thyroid is measured using scintillation detector – Uptake is measured by comparing radioactivity at thyroid after 24hours to sample iodine-131 (37kBq) • Not widely practiced today as it gives internal exposure to the patient BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR) • Since the energy produced by body is released in form of heat, the heat is primarily dissipated through skin • Therefore the BMR is related to the surface area or mass of the body BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR) • The metabolic rate depends largely on body temperature – Chemical process is very much temperature dependence – Small change in temp cause large change in chemical reaction – E.g. change of 1°C cause change about 10% of metabolic rate (fever) • This is advantageous to certain mammal (hibernating) – Reduce oxygen consumption BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR) • The concept of food consuming and metabolic rate 2. To keep constant weight: – Eat just enough food for BMR plus need for physical activities 3. Eat too little: – Cause weight loss, less source for BMR – The body will consume energy stored to compensate BMR and physical activities – Prolonged will cause starvation BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR) 1. Eat too much: – Extra energy for body. – Energy exceeding BMR and physical activities need – Stored as fat – increase body weight BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR)
• Other than metabolic rate, the power
needed for activities can also be determined by oxygen consumption • We can estimate energy used in various physical activities by measuring oxygen consumption BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR) BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR) Good Student Vs Playing Truant Student for GTX 311 class 2.Good student: walking to class = 151.1 J/m2s climbing stairs = 390 J/m2s sitting a lecture (awake) = 119.1 J/m2s walking back to hostel = 151.1 J/m2s Total energy consumed = 811.3 J/m2s BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR) 1. Playing Truant student sleeping = 47.7 J/m2s or sitting at rest = 66.8 J/m2s only!! conclusion: attending GTX 311 class has much more benefit than to skip it !!! BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR) EFFICIENCY OF WORK • The body is a great machine that converts energy stored into work • The work can be either – The internal work by the muscle cells – The external work (mechanical work) • The internal work by the muscles can be measured according to the first law of thermodynamic ∆U= ∆Q− ∆W therefore ∆W= ∆U= ∆Q EFFICIENCY OF WORK • The external work or the mechanical work such as lifting, pushing, cycling can be measured by Work, W = Fx where F is the force exerting to the object and x is the distance travelled by the object • The work performed by the body either internal or external can be compared to the energy consumed by the body to perform the task • This is called the efficiency of the work where efficiency, ε = work done, W / energy consumed EFFICIENCY OF WORK • Efficiency is usually lowest at low power (rate of work) but can increase for trained individuals e.g. cycling and rowing • Studies shown that cycling is the most efficient activities – On level ground and constant speed, no change in potential or kinetic energy – Power supplied is primarily to overcome wind resistance and friction – Less power to cycle at constant speed EFFICIENCY OF WORK • The body provide energy in two phase – Aerobic phase – Anaerobic phase • The aerobic phase – provide high power for work at short time – Involve oxygen consumption to break down the glucose (fuel) – Has high efficiency of work EFFICIENCY OF WORK • The anaerobic phase – Provide lower power for long period time of work – Do not involve oxygen consumption in breaking down glucose – Has low efficiency of work as the power provided is relatively low – Produce byproducts of lactic acid as the muscle is oxygen-deficit causing cramp to the muscle – This is compensated by fast breathing to retain oxygen to the body HEAT LOSS FROM THE BODY • Birds and mammals (including human) are homoeothermic (warm blooded) • Homoeothermics have mechanisms to keep body temperature constant despite fluctuation in environmental temperature • Constant body temp permits metabolic process to proceed at constant rate and remain active at cold climate • At death, the body cools at surrounding temperature – estimation of time of death HEAT LOSS FROM THE BODY • Human’s body heat is regulated by hypothalamus as thermostat – At high temperature, hypothalamus initiates vasodilatation of blood vessels. The blood vessel near the skin expand and carry more blood and heat to the skin. This promotes sweating and cooling the skin and body – At low temperature, hypothalamus initiates vasoconstriction limiting blood and heat flow. The hypothalamus also initiates shivering; involuntary muscle activity to increase body temperature HEAT LOSS FROM THE BODY • The heat produced by body for 2400kcal/day diet is 1.7kcal/min or 120J/s (120W) • The body will try to maintain the temperature and at the same time it must lose additional heat • The body losing heat through; 1. Radiation 2. Convection 3. Evaporation 4. Respiration HEAT LOSS FROM THE BODY 1. Heat loss by radiation • Heat loss at the function of total area of the skin • According to the principle of thermal equilibrium - transfer of heat into cooler surrounding • Forming about 50% of body heat loss • Given by the equation of Hr = Kr Ar Є (Ts – Tw) where Kr is physical constant 2.1x104J/m2hr C or 5kcal/m2hr C Ar is area of body surface radiating heat Є is infrared region independent to skin colour = 1 Ts and Tw is skin and wall temperature respectively HEAT LOSS FROM THE BODY example: if a nude body has effective area of 1.2m2 and skin temperature of 34°C losing heat to the wall of 25°C. the heat loss due to radiation is: Hr = Kr Ar Є (Ts – Tw) = (5kcal/m2hr C)(1.2m2) (1) (34-25)°C = 54 kcal/hr about 54% of body’s heat loss HEAT LOSS FROM THE BODY 1. Heat loss by convection • Heat loss upon the movement of air surrounding to the skin effective surface area • Heat loss given by the equation of: Hc = Kc Ac (Ts – Ta) Where Ac is skin effective surface area Ts is skin temperature Ta is air temperature Kc is depend on movement of air = 10.45 – v + √ v kcal/m2/hr C where v is the speed of wind HEAT LOSS FROM THE BODY • This lead to the windchill concept where the temperature the person feel on windy day is colder than the measured temperature. HEAT LOSS FROM THE BODY 1. Heat loss by evaporation • Appear even under normal condition even in absence of hard work or exercise • Form about 7% of total heat loss • Heat loss by sweating as the sweat contains heat carried by vasodilatation of blood vessels • Under extreme condition – sweat up to 1liter/hr • The sweat carries up to 580kcal heat per liter to be evaporated • The evaporation also depend on relative humidity and air movement HEAT LOSS FROM THE BODY 1. Heat loss by respiration • The air we breathe is moistured by the moist airways in the respiratory tract • The moist air contains the heat from inside the body. The exhaled air is thus carry along the heat trapped in the moisted air • Forming about 14% of total heat loss APPLICATION OF METABOLISM IN IMAGING • Metabolism of cell involves – Consumption of metabolic fuel (oxygen, glocose) – Change in energy level – Transmission of energy (heat) • These elements are measurable. Thus it can be projected as image APPLICATION OF METABOLISM IN IMAGING Several method of imaging involving metabolism of cell 2.Infrared (Thermo-photography) 3.Nuclear Medicine Imaging 4.Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) APPLICATION OF METABOLISM IN IMAGING 1.Infrared • Means ‘below’ red • Imaging of the distribution of heat • The human body produce heat to surrounding, as result of metabolism • The image produced are in the scale of color tone below red • Used extensively by military and satellite for weather forecasting APPLICATION OF METABOLISM IN IMAGING APPLICATION OF METABOLISM IN IMAGING APPLICATION OF METABOLISM IN IMAGING 1. Nuclear Medicine Imaging • In vivo detection of radiation from the body • Patients are injected intravenously with radiopharmaceuticals; raionuclide tagged with chemical substance • Chemical substances are usually metabolic agent of the tissue of interest • Radiopharmaceuticals are taken by the cell of tissue of interest APPLICATION OF METABOLISM IN IMAGING • As the chemical substances being consumed by the cell, the radionuclide emits photon from inside the cell • he patient being imaged under gamma camera – shows the distribution of radionuclide within the tissue • The higher the consumption rate, the higher emission of photon • Consumption rate indicates the metabolic rate of the cell APPLICATION OF METABOLISM IN IMAGING • The image would appear as – Hot spot: high distribution of radiopharmaceuticals - high metabolic rate – Clod spot: low distribution – low metabolic rate APPLICATION OF METABOLISM IN IMAGING 1. Functional MRI (fMRI) • Had been applied in neurology - imaging of the brain • The study of part of brain that trigger emotional mechanism (anger, sad, happiness) • The triggered signal is basically due to work done by neurons from the brain APPLICATION OF METABOLISM IN IMAGING • As the work done by cells require oxygen for its metabolism, the fMRI studied the concentration of oxygen in the part of brain that triggered the emotional mechanism • The fMRI differs from conventional MRI – fMRI uses oxygen as image percursor – Conventional MRI uses hydrogen as image percursor APPLICATION OF METABOLISM IN IMAGING