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Propagation Modes
Ground-wave propagation
Sky-wave propagation
Line-of-sight propagation
Ground Wave Propagation
Ground Wave Propagation
Follows contour of the earth
Can Propagate considerable distances
Frequencies up to 2 MHz
Example
AM radio
Sky Wave Propagation
Sky Wave Propagation
Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere
back down to earth
Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth
between ionosphere and earths surface
Reflection effect caused by refraction
Examples
Amateur radio
CB radio
Line-of-Sight Propagation
Line-of-Sight Propagation
Transmitting and receiving antennas must be
within line of sight
Satellite communication signal above 30 MHz not
reflected by ionosphere
Ground communication antennas within effective line
of site due to refraction
Refraction bending of microwaves by the
atmosphere
Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the
density of the medium
When wave changes medium, speed changes
Wave bends at the boundary between mediums
Line-of-Sight Equations
Optical line of sight
Effective, or radio, line of sight
d = distance between antenna and horizon (km)
h = antenna height (m)
K = adjustment factor to account for refraction,
rule of thumb K = 4/3
h d 57 . 3 =
h d K = 57 . 3
Line-of-Sight Equations
Maximum distance between two antennas
for LOS propagation:
h
1
= height of antenna one
h
2
= height of antenna two
( )
2 1
57 . 3 h h K + K
LOS Wireless Transmission Impairments
Attenuation and attenuation distortion
Free space loss
Noise
Atmospheric absorption
Multipath
Refraction
Thermal noise
Thermal Noise
Thermal noise due to agitation of electrons
Present in all electronic devices and
transmission media
Cannot be eliminated
Function of temperature
Particularly significant for satellite
communication
Noise Terminology
Intermodulation noise occurs if signals with
different frequencies share the same medium
Interference caused by a signal produced at a frequency
that is the sum or difference of original frequencies
Crosstalk unwanted coupling between signal
paths
Impulse noise irregular pulses or noise spikes
Short duration and of relatively high amplitude
Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances, or
faults and flaws in the communications system
Other Impairments
Atmospheric absorption water vapor and
oxygen contribute to attenuation
Multipath obstacles reflect signals so that
multiple copies with varying delays are
received
Refraction bending of radio waves as they
propagate through the atmosphere
Multipath Propagation
Multipath Propagation
Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a
surface that is large relative to the wavelength of
the signal
Diffraction - occurs at the edge of an impenetrable
body that is large compared to wavelength of radio
wave
Scattering occurs when incoming signal hits an
object whose size in the order of the wavelength
of the signal or less
The Effects of Multipath
Propagation
Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at
different phases
If phases add destructively, the signal level
relative to noise declines, making detection
more difficult
Intersymbol interference (ISI)
One or more delayed copies of a pulse may
arrive at the same time as the primary pulse for
a subsequent bit
Types of Fading
Fast fading
Slow fading
Flat fading
Selective fading
Rayleigh fading
Rician fading
Error Compensation Mechanisms
Forward error correction
Adaptive equalization
Diversity techniques
Forward Error Correction
Transmitter adds error-correcting code to data
block
Code is a function of the data bits
Receiver calculates error-correcting code from
incoming data bits
If calculated code matches incoming code, no error
occurred
If error-correcting codes dont match, receiver attempts
to determine bits in error and correct
Adaptive Equalization
Can be applied to transmissions that carry analog
or digital information
Analog voice or video
Digital data, digitized voice or video
Used to combat intersymbol interference
Involves gathering dispersed symbol energy back
into its original time interval
Techniques
Lumped analog circuits
Sophisticated digital signal processing algorithms
Antenna Height
Antenna height above the ground is directly
related to radiation resistance. Ground
reflections causing out-of-phase signals to
be radiated to receiving antennas will
degrade the transmission. Physical length
and electrical length of most antennas are
approximately 95% of the physical length.
Ideal antenna height is usually based on trial
and error procedures
Smart Antennas
Smart Antennas
smart antennas are base station antennas
with a pattern that is not fixed, but adapts to
the current radio conditions
smart antennas have the possibility for a
large increase in capacity: an increase of
three times for TDMA systems and five times
for CDMA systems has been reported.
Smart Antennas-contd
Major drawbacks and cost factors
include increased transceiver complexity
and more complex radio resource
management
Smart Antennas-contd
The idea of smart antennas is to use base
station that are
, but adapt to the current radio
conditions. This can be visualized as the
antenna directing a beam toward the
communication partner only
Smart Antennas-contd
Smart antennas add a new way of separating
users, namely by space, through SDMA
(space division multiple access)
By maximizing the antenna gain in the
desired direction and simultaneously placing
minimal radiation pattern in the directions of
the interferers, the quality of the
communication link can be significantly
improved
Elements of a Smart Antenna
Smart antennas consists of a number of
radiating elements, a combining/dividing
network and a control unit
Phased Array Antenna
Phased Array antennas are a
combination of antennas in which
there is a control of the phase and
power of the signal applied at each
antenna resulting in a wide variety
of possible radiation patterns
Types of Intelligent Antennas
Switched lobe (SL): This is also called
switched beam. It is the simplest
technique, and comprises only a basic
switching function between separate
directive antennas or predefined beams
of an array. The setting that gives the
best performance, usually in terms of
received power, is chosen
Intelligent Antennas-contd
Dynamically phased array (PA): By
including a direction of arrival (DoA)
algorithm for the signal received from
the user, continuous tracking can be
achieved and it can be viewed as a
generalization of the switched lobe
concept
Intelligent Antennas-contd
Adaptive array (AA): In this case, a DoA
algorithm for determining the direction toward
interference sources (e.g., other users) is added.
The radiation pattern can then be adjusted to null
out the interferers. In addition, by using special
algorithms and space diversity techniques, the
radiation pattern can be adapted to receive
multipath signals which can be combined. These
techniques will maximize the signal to
interference ratio (SIR)
SMDA
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
implies that more than one user can be
allocated to the same physical
communications channel simultaneously
in the same cell, only separated by
angle. In a TDMA system, two users will
be allocated to the same time slot and
carrier frequency at the same time and
in the same cell
SMDA-contd
In systems providing full SDMA, there
will be much more intracell handovers
than in conventional TDMA or CDMA
systems, and more monitoring by the
network is necessary
Antenna Installation Considerations
Safety
standard operating procedure priority
Grounding
lightning strikes
static charges
Surge protection
lightning searches for a second path to
ground
Antenna Installation Considerations-
contd
Adaptive array antenna placement
needs to be considered differently than
current technologies serving the mobile
environment. They need to be place so
they have a greater angular approach
to the receiving units. Existing tower
placement with close proximity to roads
and highways would need to be
reconsidered.
Antenna Installation Considerations
Base, mast, and supporting
structure needs clearance,
serviceability (access), and
complies with state, federal, and
municipal guidelines