IP NETWORKING OVERVIEW

AGENDA

1. Network Basics and OSI Layers 2. LAN Components 3. IP Addressing 4. Switching Concepts 5. Routing Concepts 6. Network Troubleshooting and Overview on DNS and DHCP

WHAT IS A NETWORK
A network can be defined as two or more computers connected together in such a way that they can share resources.

It is simply a collection of computers or other hardware devices that are connected together, either physically or logically, using special hardware and software, to allow them to exchange information and cooperate. Networking is the term that describes the processes involved in designing, implementing, upgrading, managing and otherwise working with networks and network technologies.

WHY NETWORK IS REQUIRED

Connectivity and Communication Data Sharing Hardware Sharing Internet Access Internet Access Sharing Data Security and Management Performance Enhancement and Balancing Entertainment

In general, the purpose of a network is to share resources. A resource may be:

A file A folder A printer A disk drive Or just about anything else that exists on a computer.

NETWORK CLASSIFICATIONS
Local Area Networks (LANs): A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small geographic area, like a home, office, or group of buildings Wide Area Networks (WANs): Wide Area Network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries). Or, less formally, a network that uses routers and public communications links The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is the Internet. WANs are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together, so that users and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic area or region larger than that covered by even a large local area network (LAN) but smaller than the area covered by a wide area network (WAN). The term is applied to the interconnection of networks in a city into a single larger network (which may then also offer efficient connection to a wide area network). It is also used to mean the interconnection of several local area networks by bridging them with backbone lines. The latter usage is also sometimes referred to as a campus network. 5

OSI LAYERS

OSI LAYERS
Application Layer This layer provides network services to application processes (such as electronic mail, file transfer and terminal emulation) Presentation Layer This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating from application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the application layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the syntax layer. Session Layer This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination. Transport Layer This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.

OSI LAYERS
Network Layer This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing. Data Link Layer At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer controls how a computer on the network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking. Physical Layer: This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer components

PHYSICAL LAN COMPONENTS

LAN consists of two major components :

1.

Passive (dead) Components :

Cable UTP (Un-shielded Twisted Pair)

CAT 5 supports upto 100 Mbps

CAT 5e supports upto 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps) CAT 6 Supports 1,000 Mbps (1 Gbps) CAT 7 Supports upto 10,000 Mbps (10 Gigabits per second) Connectors Patch Panel, Information Outlet, RJ-45 etc. Patch cord for connecting the device to the I/O box.

2.

Active Components :
(require power supply, generates electric signals, capable of amplification)
Hub : 10/100 Mbps.

Switch : 10/100 Mbps or 10/100/1000 Mbps (GBIC) 9

PASSIVE COMPONENTS Patch cord : A small factory made flexible cable having
RJ-45 connectors at both the ends. Used to connect PCs Network card to the I/O or Patch-panel and switch-port.

I/O : Information-Outlet has RJ-45 interface at one end and

open-pins at the other end. This is used to terminated the horizontal-run at the users end.

Horizontal Run : A long UTP (Unshielded-Twisted-Pair)

cable (Cat5/Cat5e/Cat6) running between I/O and Patch-panel.

Patch-Panel : It has RJ-45 interface at one end and openpins at the other end. Used to terminated the horizontal-run cable at the switch-end / Network rack/IT room.

Uplink :

Generally An UTP/OF cable which runs between

floors/switches to connected two floors/switches.

10

TYPES OF COPPER CABLES Straight Through cable :

The Straight-through cable has

identical ends => ( used as a patch cord to connect different type of devices e.g. PC to Switch).

Cross-Over cable : A cross-over cable has different ends. The Rx

and Tx pairs are reversed between the ends. (Used to connect two Ethernet devices without a switch or for connecting two switches i.e. similar devices).

Rollover cable :

The rollover cable is used to connect a computer's

serial port to the console port of a router or managed switch (with a dongle). It is wired with the to ends completely the reverse of each other.

11

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HUB AND SWITCH Switch

Bridging Device 10 / 100 / 1000 Mbps Each port has dedicated bandwidth 8 / 16 / 24 / 48 Ports & Modular

Hub
Shared Device 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps All ports share the bandwidth 8 / 12 /16 / 24 Ports Forwards frames to all the ports

Forwards frames to the specific ports

(based on MAC address Table) Multiple collision domain (i.e. Switches break-up collision domain) Supports half- as-well-as full-duplex

(works on Broadcasting model)

Single collision domain Supports half-duplex

12

INTRODUCTION TO IP ADDRESSING
The initial host-to-host communications protocol introduced in the ARPANET was called the Network Control Protocol (NCP). Over time, however, NCP proved to be incapable of keeping up with the growing network traffic load. In 1974, a new, more robust suite of communications protocols was proposed and implemented throughout the ARPANET, based upon the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) for end-to-end network communication. But it seemed like overkill for the intermediate gateways (what we would today call routers) to needlessly have to deal with an end-to-end protocol so in 1978 a new design split responsibilities between a pair of protocols; the new Internet Protocol (IP) for routing packets and device-to-device communication (i.e., host-to-gateway or gateway-to-gateway) and TCP for reliable, end-to-end host communication. Since TCP and IP were originally envisioned functionally as a single protocol, the protocol suite, which actually refers to a large collection of protocols and applications, is usually referred to simply as TCP/IP. An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical label that is assigned to devices participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication between its nodes.

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IP ADDRESSING
An IP address is a 32-bit sequence of 1s and 0s. To make the IP address easier to use, the address is usually written as four decimal numbers separated by periods. This way of writing the address is called the dotted decimal format.

14

IPV4 ADDRESSING

15

CLASS A, B, C, D, AND E IP ADDRESSES

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RESERVED IP ADDRESSES
Certain host addresses are reserved and cannot be assigned to devices on a network.

An IP address that has binary 0s in all host bit positions is reserved for the network address.
An IP address that has binary 1s in all host bit positions is reserved for the network address.

17

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE IP ADDRESSES

No two machines that connect to a public network can have the same IP address because public IP addresses are global and standardized. However, private networks that are not connected to the Internet may use any host addresses, as long as each host within the private network is unique. RFC 1918 sets aside three blocks of IP addresses for private, internal use. Connecting a network using private addresses to the Internet requires translation of the private addresses to public addresses using Network Address Translation (NAT).

18

INTRODUCTION TO SUBNETTING
To create a subnet address, a network administrator borrows bits from the host field and designates them as the subnet field.

19

MAC ADDRESS LAYER 2 Why MAC Addresses ?

Recall that TCP/IP and other mainstream networking architectures generally adopt the OSI model. In this model, network functionality is subdivided into layers. MAC addresses function at the data link layer (layer 2 in the OSI model). They allow computers to uniquely identify themselves on a network at this relatively low level. The MAC address is a unique value associated with a network adapter. MAC addresses are also known as hardware addresses or physical addresses. They uniquely identify an adapter on a LAN. MAC addresses are 12-digit hexadecimal numbers (48 bits in length). By convention, MAC addresses are usually written in one of the following two formats. The first half of a MAC address contains the ID number of the adapter manufacturer. These IDs are regulated by an Internet standards body (see sidebar). The second half of a MAC address represents the serial number assigned to the adapter by the manufacturer 20

What is a MAC address ?

ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL (ARP)

Each device on a network maintains its own ARP table. A device that requires an IP and MAC address pair broadcasts an ARP request.

If one of the local devices matches the IP address of the request, it sends back an ARP reply that contains its IP-MAC pair.
If the request is for a different IP network, a router performs a proxy ARP The router sends an ARP response with the MAC address of the interface on which the request was received, to the requesting host.

21

WAN
A wide area network(WAN)is a computer network covering multiple distance areas, which may spread across the entire world. WANs often connect multiple smaller networks, such as local area networks (LANs) or metro area networks (MANs). The world's most popular WAN is the Internet. Some segments of the Internet are also WANs in themselves. A wide area network may be privately owned or rented from service providers, but the term usually connotes the inclusion of public (shared user) networks. A virtual private network (VPN) is often used by organizations for their private and secured communications. VPN uses encryption and other techniques to make it appear that the organisation has a dedicated network while making use of the shared infrastructure of the WAN. WANs generally utilize different networking technologies and equipment than do LANs. Key technologies often found in WANs include SONET, Frame Relay, X.25, ATM, and PPP

22

ROUTED AND ROUTING PROTOCOLS

A routing protocol sends and receives routing information packets to and from other routers. A routed protocol can be routed by a router, which means that it can be forwarded from one router to another. A routed protocol contains the data elements required for a packet to be sent outside of its host network or network segment. In other words, a routed protocol can be routed. Protocols used to communicate routing information between routers within an autonomous system are Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP), which are routing protocols, but not routed protocols. Examples of routed protocols are IP and IPX, and examples of routing protocols are RIP and IGRP.

23

SWITCHING

24

ETHERNET/802.3 LAN DEVELOPMENT

Distance limitations Ethernet is fundamentally a shared technology where all users on a given LAN segment compete for the same available bandwidth. This situation is analogous to a number of cars all trying to access a one-lane road at the same time. Because the road has only one lane, only one car can access it at a time. The introduction of hubs into a network resulted in more users competing for the same bandwidth. Collisions are a by-product of Ethernet networks. 25

BRIDGES

A bridge is a Layer 2 device used to divide, or segment, a network. A bridge is capable of collecting and selectively passing data frames between two network segments. Bridges do this by learning the MAC address of all devices on each connected segment. Using this information, the bridge builds a bridging table and forwards or blocks traffic based on that table. This results in smaller collision domains and greater network efficiency. Bridges do NOT restrict broadcast traffic.

26

SWITCHES

Switches create a virtual circuit between two connected devices, establishing a dedicated communication path between two devices. Switches on the network provide microsegmentation. This allows maximum utilization of the available bandwidth. A switch is also able to facilitate multiple, simultaneous virtual circuit connections. Broadcast frames to all connected devices on the network. 27

ELEMENTS OF ETHERNET/802.3 NETWORKS

Broadcast data frame delivery of Ethernet/802.3 The carrier sense multiple access/collision detect (CSMA/CD) method allows only one station to transmit at a time. Multimedia applications with higher bandwidth demand such as video and the Internet, coupled with the broadcast nature of Ethernet, can create network congestion. Normal latency as the frames travel across the layers Extending the distances and increasing latency of the Ethernet/802.3 LANs by using Layer 1 repeaters. 28

HALF-DUPLEX

Originally Ethernet was a half-duplex technology. Using half-duplex, a host could either transmit or receive at one time, but not both. If the network is already in use, the transmission is delayed. When a collision occurs, the host that first detects the collision will send out a jam signal to the other hosts. Upon receiving the jam signal, each host will stop sending data, then wait for a random period of time before attempting to retransmit. The back-off algorithm generates this random delay. As more hosts are added to the network and begin transmitting, collisions are more likely to occur.

29

FULL-DUPLEX TRANSMITTING

Full-duplex Ethernet allows the transmission of a packet and the reception of a different packet at the same time. To transmit and receive simultaneously, a dedicated switch port is required for each node. The full-duplex Ethernet switch takes advantage of the two pairs of wires in the cable by creating a direct connection between the transmit (TX) at one end of the circuit and the receive (RX) at the other end. Ethernet usually can only use 50%-60% of the available 10 Mbps of bandwidth because of collisions and latency. Full-duplex Ethernet offers 100% of the bandwidth in both directions. This produces a potential 20 Mbps throughput, which results from 10 Mbps TX and 10 Mbps RX. 30

LAN SEGMENTATION

31

ACCESS METHODS
Two common types of access methods for LANs include Non-Deterministic: Contention methods (Ethernet, IEEE 802.3) Only one signal can be on a network segment at one time. Collisions are a normal occurrence on an Ethernet/802.3 LAN

Deterministic: Token Passing (Token Ring)

32

CSMA/CD CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)

Common contention method used with Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 Let everyone have access whenever they want and we will work it out somehow.

33

CSMA/CD AND COLLISIONS

CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)
Listens to the networks shared media to see if any other users on on the line by trying to sense a neutral electrical signal or carrier. If no transmission is sensed, then multiple access allows anyone onto the media without any further permission required. If two PCs detect a neutral signal and access the shared media at the exact same time, a collision occurs and is detected. The PCs sense the collision by being unable to deliver the entire frame (coming soon) onto the network. (This is why there are minimum frame lengths along with cable distance and speed limitations. This includes the 54-3 rule.) When a collision occurs, a jamming signal is sent out by the first PC to detect the collision. Using either a priority or random backoff scheme, the PCs wait certain amount of time before retransmitting. If collisions continue to occur, the PCs random interval is doubled, lessening the chances of a collision.

34

CSMA/CD AND COLLISIONS

Hey, thats me! 3333

Nope 1111 2222

Nope nnnn

Abbreviated MAC Addresses

Notice the location of the DA!

3333 1111

And as we said, When information (frame) is transmitted, every PC/NIC on the shared media copies part of the transmitted frame to see if the destination address matches the address of the NIC. If there is a match, the rest of the frame is copied If there is NOT a match the rest of the frame is ignored. 35

SENDING AND RECEIVING ETHERNET FRAMES VIA A HUB

3333 1111

1111

2222

So, what does a hub do when it receives information? Remember, a hub is nothing more than a multiport repeater.

5555

3333

4444

36

SENDING AND RECEIVING ETHERNET FRAMES VIA A HUB

Hub or

37

SENDING AND RECEIVING ETHERNET FRAMES VIA A HUB

3333 1111

1111

2222 Nope

5555 Nope

The hub will flood it out all ports except for the incoming port. Hub is a layer 1 device. A hub does NOT look at layer 2 addresses, so it is fast in transmitting data. Disadvantage with hubs: A hub or series of hubs is a single collision domain. A collision will occur if any two or more devices transmit at the same time within the collision domain. More on this later. 38

3333 For me!

4444 Nope

SENDING AND RECEIVING ETHERNET FRAMES VIA A HUB

2222 1111

1111

2222 For me!

Another disadvantage with hubs is that is take up unnecessary bandwidth on other links.

5555 Nope

Wasted bandwidth

3333 Nope

4444 Nope

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SENDING AND RECEIVING ETHERNET FRAMES VIA A SWITCH

40

SENDING AND RECEIVING ETHERNET FRAMES VIA A SWITCH

Source Address Table Port Source MAC Add. Port Source MAC Add. 3333 1111

switch

1111
Abbreviated MAC addresses

3333

Switches are also known as learning bridges or learning switches. A switch has a source address table in cache (RAM) where it stores source MAC address after it learns about them. A switch receives an Ethernet frame it searches the source address table for the Destination MAC address. If it finds a match, it filters the frame by only sending it out that port. If there is not a match if floods it out all ports.
4444

2222

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NO DESTINATION ADDRESS IN TABLE, FLOOD

Source Address Table Port Source MAC Add. Port Source MAC Add. 1 1111

3333 1111

switch

1111
Abbreviated MAC addresses

3333

How does it learn source MAC addresses? First, the switch will see if the SA (1111) is in its table. If it is, it resets the timer (more in a moment). If it is NOT in the table it adds it, with the port number. Next, in our scenario, the switch will flood the frame out all other ports, because the DA is not in the source address table.

2222

4444

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DESTINATION ADDRESS IN TABLE, FILTER

Source Address Table Port Source MAC Add. Port Source MAC Add. 1 1111 6 3333

1111 3333

switch

1111
Abbreviated MAC addresses

3333

Most communications involve some sort of client-server relationship or exchange of information. (You will understand this more as you learn about TCP/IP.) Now 3333 sends data back to 1111. The switch sees if it has the SA stored. It does NOT so it adds it. (This will help next time 1111 sends to 3333.) Next, it checks the DA and in our case it can filter the frame, by sending it only out port 1.
4444

2222

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DESTINATION ADDRESS IN TABLE, FILTER

Source Address Table Port Source MAC Add. Port Source MAC Add. 1 1111 6 3333

3333 1111

switch
1111 3333

Now, because both MAC addresses are in the switchs table, any information exchanged between 1111 and 3333 can be sent (filtered) out the appropriate port.
1111
Abbreviated MAC addresses

3333

2222

4444

What happens when two devices send to same destination? What if this was a hub? Where is (are) the collision domain(s) in this example? 44

NO COLLISIONS IN SWITCH, BUFFERING

Source Address Table Port Source MAC Add. Port Source MAC Add. 1 1111 6 3333 9 4444

3333 1111

switch
3333 4444

1111
Abbreviated MAC addresses

3333

Unlike a hub, a collision does NOT occur, which would cause the two PCs to have to retransmit the frames. Instead the switch buffers the frames and sends them out port #6 one at a time. The sending PCs have no idea that their was another PC wanting to send to the same destination.
4444

2222

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COLLISION DOMAINS
Source Address Table Port Source MAC Add. Port Source MAC Add. 1 1111 6 3333 9 4444

3333 1111

Collision Domains

switch
3333 4444

1111
Abbreviated MAC addresses

3333

When there is only one device on a switch port, the collision domain is only between the PC and the switch. (Cisco curriculum is inaccurate on this point.) With a full-duplex PC and switch port, there will be no collision, since the devices and the medium can send and receive at the same time.
4444

2222

46

WHAT HAPPENS HERE?

Source Address Table Port Source MAC Add. Port Source MAC Add. 1 1111 6 3333 1 2222 1 5555

1111 3333

Collision Domain

3333 1111 2222 5555

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LAN SEGMENTATION WITH ROUTERS

Routers provide segmentation of networks, adding a latency factor of 20% to 30% over a switched network. This increased latency is because a router operates at the network layer and uses the IP address to determine the best path to the destination node. Bridges and switches provide segmentation within a single network or subnetwork. Routers provide connectivity between networks and subnetworks. Routers also do not forward broadcasts while switches and bridges must forward broadcast frames. 48

HOW SWITCHES LEARN ADDRESSES

Bridges and switches learn in the following ways: Reading the source MAC address of each received frame or datagram Recording the port on which the MAC address was received. The bridge or switch learns which addresses belong to the devices connected to each port. The learned addresses and associated port or interface are stored in the addressing table. The bridge examines the destination address of all received frames. The bridge then scans the address table searching for the destination address.

49

FILTER OR FLOOD (SWITCH)

If a switch has the frames destination address in its CAM table (or Source Address Table) it will only send the frame out the appropriate port. If a switch does not have the frames destination MAC address in its CAM table, it floods (sends) it out all ports except for the incoming port (the port that the frame came in on) known as an Unknown Unicast, or if the destination MAC address is a broadcast. Note: A CAM table may contain multiple entries per port, if a hub or a switch is attached to that port. Most Ethernet bridges can filter broadcast and multicast frames. 50

FILTER OR FLOOD (SWITCH)

Switches flood frames that are: Unknown unicasts Layer 2 broadcasts Multicasts (unless running multicast snooping or IGMP) Multicast are special layer 2 and layer 3 addresses that are sent to devices that belong to that group.

51

WHY SEGMENT LANS? (LAYER 2 SEGMENTS)

switch

Collision Domains A switch employs microsegmentation to reduce the collision domain on a LAN. The switch does this by creating dedicated network segments, or point-to-point connections.
2222 4444

1111
Abbreviated MAC addresses

3333

52

SWITCHES AND BROADCAST DOMAINS

These are logical not physical representations of what happens to these frames.

Switches flood frames that are: Unknown unicasts Layer 2 broadcasts Multicasts (unless running multicast snooping or IGMP) Multicast are special layer 2 and layer 3 addresses that are sent to devices that belong to that group. 53

SWITCHES AND BROADCAST DOMAINS

When a device wants to send out a Layer 2 broadcast, the destination MAC address in the frame is set to all ones. A MAC address of all ones is FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF in hexadecimal. By setting the destination to this value, all the devices will accept and process the broadcasted frame.
54

SWITCHES AND BROADCAST DOMAINS

55

COMMUNICATION BETWEEN SWITCHES AND WORKSTATION

56

INTRODUCTION TO VLANS

57

VLANS

VLANs logically segment switched networks based on an organization's functions, project teams, or applications as opposed to a physical or geographical basis.

58

BROADCAST DOMAINS

59

EXAMPLE WITH 3 BROADCAST DOMAINS, 3 VLANS

60

VLAN CONFIGURATION

61

BENEFITS OF VLANS
Easily move workstations on the LAN Easily add workstations to the LAN Easily change the LAN configuration Easily control network traffic

Improve security

62

COMMUNICATING BETWEEN VLANS

63

VLAN TYPES

64

INTER-SWITCH LINK

65

OBJECTIVES
Trunking VTP Inter-VLAN routing

66

HISTORY OF TRUNKING

67

TRUNKING CONCEPTS

68

FRAME FILTERING

69

FRAME TAGGING

70

INTER-SWITCH LINK PROTOCOL

71

VLANS AND TRUNKING

72

FRAME TAGGING AND ENCAPSULATION METHODS

73

VTP BENEFITS

74

VTP CONCEPTS

The role of VTP is to maintain VLAN configuration consistency across a common network administration domain.

75

VTP MODE COMPARISON

76

VTP OPERATION

77

VTP IMPLEMENTATION
There are two types of VTP advertisements: Requests from clients that want information at bootup Responses from servers There are three types of VTP messages: Advertisement requests Summary advertisements Subset advertisements

78

VTP BASIC CONFIGURATION STEPS

1. 2. 3. 4. Determine the version number Choose the domain Choose the VTP mode Password protect the domain

79

INTER-VLAN ROUTING

80

INTER-VLAN ISSUES AND SOLUTIONS

Two of the most common issues that arise in a multiple-VLAN environment are \as follows:

The need for end-user devices to reach nonlocal hosts

The need for hosts on different VLANs to communicate

81

ROUTER ON A STICK

82

PHYSICAL AND LOGICAL INTERFACES

83

DIVIDING PHYSICAL INTERFACES INTO SUBINTERFACES

84

OBJECTIVES
Redundant topologies Spanning Tree Protocol

85

REDUNDANCY

Redundant networking topologies are designed to ensure that networks continue to function in the presence of single points of failure.

86

REDUNDANT TOPOLOGIES
A goal of redundant topologies is to eliminate network outages caused by a single point of failure. All networks need redundancy for enhanced reliability.

87

SIMPLE REDUNDANT SWITCHED TOPOLOGY

88

BROADCAST STORM

89

MULTIPLE FRAME TRANSMISSIONS

90

MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL DATABASE INSTABILITY

In a redundant switched network, it is possible for switches to learn the wrong information. A switch can learn that a MAC address is on a port when it is not.

91

USING BRIDGING LOOPS FOR REDUNDANCY

92

SPANNING-TREE PROTOCOL

93

SPANNING TREE LINK COSTS

94

A SPANNING TREE

95

SPANNING-TREE OPERATION

One root bridge per network. One root port per nonroot bridge. One designated port per segment. Nondesignated ports are unused.

96

BRIDGE PROTOCOL DATA UNIT

Bridge protocol data unit (BPDU)

97

BRIDGE IDS

98

SPANNING-TREE PORT STATES

99

SPANNING-TREE RECALCULATION

A switched internetwork has converged when all the switch and bridge ports are in either the forwarding or blocked state.

100

RAPID SPANNING-TREE PROTOCOL The standard and protocol introduce the following:
Clarification of port states and roles Definition of a set of link types that can go to forwarding state rapidly Allowing switches, in a converged network, to generate their own BPDUs rather than relaying root bridge BPDUs

101

RAPID SPANNING-TREE PORT DESIGNATIONS

The Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol, IEEE 802.1w, will eventually replace the Spanning Tree Protocol, IEEE 802.1D.

102

TIME FOR LAYER 3 REDUNDANCY (HIGH-AVAILABILITY)

103

WHY YOU NEED IMPLEMENTING HIGH AVAILABILITY?

104

ROUTER REDUNDACY

105

FIRST HOP REDUNDANCY SCHEMES Hot Standby Router Protocol (HSRP)

Cisco informational RFC 2281 ( March 1998)

Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol (VRRP)

IETF Standard RFC 2338 (April 1998)

Gateway Load Balancing Protocol (GLBP)

Cisco designed, load sharing, patent pending

106

HSRP
A group of routers function as one virtual router by sharing ONE virtual IP address and ONE virtual MAC address. One (Active) router performs packet forwarding for local hosts The rest of the routers provide hot standby in case the active router fails Standby routers stay idle as far as packet forwarding from the client side is concerned

107

FIRST HOP REDUNDANCY WITH HSRP

R1- Active, forwarding traffic; R2, R3 - hot standby, idle
HSRP ACTIVE IP: 10.0.0.254 MAC: 0000.0c12.3456 vIP: 10.0.0.10 vMAC: 0000.0c07ac00
HSRP STANDBY IP: 10.0.0.253 MAC: 0000.0C78.9abc vIP: vMAC: HSRP LISTEN IP: 10.0.0.252 MAC: 0000.0cde.f123 vIP: vMAC:

R1

R2

R3

Gateway routers

Clients

CL1

CL2

CL3

IP: MAC: GW: ARP:

10.0.0.1 aaaa.aaaa.aa01 10.0.0.10 0000.0c07.ac00

IP: MAC: GW: ARP:

10.0.0.2 aaaa.aaaa.aa02 10.0.0.10 0000.0c07.ac00

IP: MAC: GW: ARP:

10.0.0.3 aaaa.aaaa.aa03 10.0.0.10 0000.0c07.ac00

108

VRRP
Very similar to HSRP A group of routers function as one virtual router by sharing ONE virtual IP address and ONE virtual MAC address One (master) router performs packet forwarding for local hosts The rest of the routers act as back up in case the master router fails Backup routers stay idle as far as packet forwarding from the client side is concerned

109

FIRST HOP REDUNDANCY WITH VRRP

R1- Master, forwarding traffic; R2, R3 - backup
VRRP ACTIVE IP: 10.0.0.254 MAC: 0000.0c12.3456 vIP: 10.0.0.10 vMAC: 0000.5e00.0100 VRRP BACKUP IP: 10.0.0.253 MAC: 0000.0C78.9abc vIP: vMAC: VRRP BACKUP IP: 10.0.0.252 MAC: 0000.0cde.f123 vIP: vMAC:

R1

R2

R3

Gateway routers

Clients

CL1

CL2

CL3

IP: MAC: GW: ARP:

10.0.0.1 aaaa.aaaa.aa01 10.0.0.10 0000.5e00.0100

IP: MAC: GW: ARP:

10.0.0.2 aaaa.aaaa.aa02 10.0.0.10 0000.5e00.0100

IP: MAC: GW: ARP:

10.0.0.3 aaaa.aaaa.aa03 10.0.0.10 0000.5e00.0100

110

GLBP DEFINED
A group of routers function as one virtual router by sharing ONE virtual IP address but using Multiple virtual MAC addresses for traffic forwarding Provides uplink load-balancing as well as first hop fail-over IP Leadership feature

111

GLBP REQUIREMENTS
Allow traffic from a single common subnet to go through multiple redundant gateways using a single virtual IP address Provide upstream load-balancing by utilizing the redundant up-links simultaneously Eliminate the need to create multiple vLANs or manually divide clients for multiple gateway IP address assignment Preserve the same level of first-hop failure recovery capability as provided by HSRP

112

FIRST HOP REDUNDANCY WITH GLBP

R1- AVG; R1, R2, R3 all forward traffic
GLBP AVG/AVF,SVF IP: 10.0.0.254 MAC: 0000.0c12.3456 vIP: 10.0.0.10 vMAC: 0007.b400.0101 GLBP AVF,SVF IP: 10.0.0.253 MAC: 0000.0C78.9abc vIP: 10.0.0.10 vMAC: 0007.b400.0102 GLBP AVF,SVF IP: 10.0.0.252 MAC: 0000.0cde.f123 vIP: 10.0.0.10 vMAC: 0007.b400.0103

R1

R2

R3

Gateway routers

Clients

CL1

CL2

CL3

IP: MAC: GW: ARP:

10.0.0.1 aaaa.aaaa.aa01 10.0.0.10 0007.B400.0101

IP: MAC: GW: ARP:

10.0.0.2 aaaa.aaaa.aa02 10.0.0.10 0007.B400.0102

IP: MAC: GW: ARP:

10.0.0.3 aaaa.aaaa.aa03 10.0.0.10 0007.B400.0103

113

Routing

114

ROUTING TYPES
The cost for all static routes is 0 The default administrative distance for static routes is 1

Hoboken#show ip route Codes: C - connected, S - static, S 172.16.1.0/24 [1/0] is directly connected, Serial0 C 192.168.2.0/24 is directly connected, Ethernet0

115

ADMINISTRATIVE DISTANCE

Administrative Distance is the trustworthiness of the routing information. Lower the administrative distance the more trustworthy the information. If the router hears about a route to the same network from more than one source it will use the administrative distance to decide which route to put in the routing table. 116

STATIC ROUTING
192.168.2.0/24 e0 .1 RTA s0 .1 172.16.0.0/16 s0 .2 RTB s1 .1 192.168.1.0/24 s1 .2 RTC 10.1.0.0/16 e0 .1

Configuring static routes Routers do not need to configure static routes for their own directly connected networks. We need to configure static routes for networks this router needs to reach. We will need to configure static routes for the other routers as well, as routing information about a path from one network to another does not provide routing information about the reverse, or return path. Convergence When all the routers in the network (AS) have accurate and consistent information, so that proper routing and packet forwarding can take place. Convergence will not happen until all the routers have complete and accurate routing information, meaning we must configure static routes on all the routers before packets will be correctly delivered. 117

STATIC ROUTING
192.168.2.0/24 e0 .1 RTA s0 .1 172.16.0.0/16 s0 .2 RTB s1 .1 192.168.1.0/24 s1 .2 RTC 10.1.0.0/16 e0 .1

RTA(config)#ip route 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.0.2 RTA#show ip route Codes: C - connected, S - static, C 172.16.0.0/16 is directly connected, Serial0 S 192.168.1.0/24 [1/0] via 172.16.0.2 C 192.168.2.0/24 is directly connected, Ethernet0

2 1

Recursive Lookup
The router knows it can get to 192.168.1.0/24 network by forwarding the packets to the router at the ip address of 172.16.0.2 How does the router know how to get to the ip address 172.16.0.2? It does a recursive lookup first (1) by looking up the 192.168.1.0/24 network and finding it needs to forward the packet to 172.16.0.2 the router then (2) looks up the 172.16.0.0 network and sees it can forward it out the interface Serial 0. 118

DYNAMIC ROUTING ROUTING PROTOCOLS

The goal of a routing protocol is to build and maintain the routing table. This table contains the learned networks and associated ports for those networks. Routers use routing protocols to manage information received from other routers, information learned from the configuration of its own interfaces, along with manually configured routes.

119

TYPES OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Distance Vector: RIP, IGRP, EIGRP Link State: OSPF, IS-IS Path Vector: BGP Note: IGRP and EIGRP are Cisco Proprietary 120

RIP Routing Information Protocol (RIP) was originally specified in RFC 1058.
It is a distance vector routing protocol. Hop count is used as the metric for path selection. If the hop count is greater than 15, the packet is discarded. Routing updates are broadcast every 30 seconds, by default.

121

IGRP

IGRP is a distance vector routing protocol developed by Cisco. IGRP sends routing updates at 90 second intervals, advertising networks for a particular autonomous system. Key design characteristics of IGRP are a follows: o The versatility to automatically handle indefinite, complex topologies o The flexibility needed to segment with different bandwidth and delay characteristics o Scalability for functioning in very large networks

122

IGRP
By default, the IGRP routing protocol uses bandwidth and delay as metrics. Additionally, IGRP can be configured to use a combination of variables to determine a composite metric. Those variables include: Bandwidth Delay Load Reliability IGRP has an administrative distance of 100, more trustworthy than RIP at 120. This means a Cisco router will prefer an IGRP learned route over a RIP learned route to the same network.

123

IGRP TIMERS

All timers begin at the same time. Update timer = 90 seconds Invalid timer = 270 seconds Holddown timer = 280 seconds Flush timer = 630 seconds Today, IGRP is showing its age, it lacks support for variable length subnet masks (VLSM). Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP) supports VLSM.

124

EIGRP CONCEPTS
Every EIGRP router maintains a topology table for each configured network protocol. All learned routes to a destination are maintained in the topology table. Neighbor discovery and recovery Reliable Transport Protocol DUAL finite-state machine algorithm Protocol-dependent modules By forming adjacencies, EIGRP routers: Dynamically learn of new routes that join their network Identify routers that become either unreachable or inoperable Rediscover routers that had previously been unreachable

125

USING EIGRP WITH IGRP

126

EIGRP DATA STRUCTURES

The five EIGRP packet types are as follows: Hello (used to discover, verify, and rediscover neighbor routers) Acknowledgment Update Query Reply

127

EIGRP SUCCESSORS AND FEASIBLE SUCCESSORS

128

FEASIBLE SUCCESSOR ROUTE SELECTION RULES

129

CONFIGURING EIGRP

130

EIGRP AUTOMATICALLY SUMMARIZES BASED ON CLASS

131

ROUTE SELECTION
If a link goes down, DUAL looks for an alternative route path, or feasible successor, in the topology table. If a feasible successor is not found, the route is flagged as Active, or unusable at present. Query packets are sent to neighboring routers requesting topology information. DUAL uses this information to recalculate successor and feasible successor routes to the destination.

132

OSPF
Open Shortest Path First Link State or SPF technology Developed by the IETFs OSPF working group (RFC 1247) Designed for TCP/IP Fast Convergence Variable length netmasks Non-contiguous subnets No need for periodic updates Route authentication OSPF is defined in RFC2328

133

LINK-STATE ROUTING
Neighbor discovery Construct a Link State Packet (LSP) Distribute the LSP Link State Announcement LSA Route calculation If a link fails Flood new LSPs All routers recalculate their routing tables

134

OSPF AREAS
Group of contiguous nodes/networks Per area topology DB Invisible outside the area Reduces routing traffic Backbone Area is contiguous All others areas must connect to the backbone Virtual Links

Area 2 Area 0 Backbone Area

Area 3

Area 4

Area 1

135

ROUTER CLASSIFICATION IN OSPF

Internal Router (IR) Area Border Router (ABR) Backbone Router (BR) Autonomous System Border Router (ASBR)

IR
Area 2 Area 3

ABR/BR
Area 0

ASBR
To another AS

136

OSPF ROUTE TYPES

Area 2

Area 0

Area 3

ABR

Intra-Area Route All routes within an area Inter-Area Route Routes announced from area to another by an ABR

ASBR
To Another AS

External Route Routes imported into OSPF from another protocol or Static routes

137

ROUTE SUMMARIZATION
Prefix or all subnets Prefix or all networks Area range command Routes can be summarized only in ABRs ASBRs

R2

FDDI Dual Ring

Backbone Area 0

With Summarization Without Summarization

Network 1 Network 1.A 1.B 1.C

Next Hop R1 Next Hop R1 R1 R1

R1 (ABR)

Area 1
1.A 1.B 1.C

138

OSPFS METRIC IS COST (BANDWIDTH)

Cisco: Cost = Bandwidth Cisco uses a default cost of 108/bandwidth Default bandwidth of the interface (bandwidth command)

108 (100,000,000) as the reference bandwidth: This is used so that the faster links (higher bandwidth) have lower costs.
Routing metrics, lower the cost the better the route. I.e. RIP: 3 hops is better than 10 hops

Extra: The reference bandwidth can be modified to accommodate networks with links faster than 100,000,000 bps (100 Mbps). See ospf auto-cost reference-bandwidth command.

Cost of a route is the cumulative costs of the outgoing interfaces from this router to the network.

139

OSPF PACKET TYPES

Share a common protocol header Routing protocol packets are sent with a TOS of 0 Five types of OSPF routing protocol packets Hello packet type 1 DB Description packet type 2 Link-state request packet type 3 Link-state update packet type 4 Link-state Acknowledgment packet type 5

140

OSPF LSA TYPES

OSPF has 11 types of LSAs out of which 7 types are used in normal scenarios

141

OSPF ADJACENCY STATES

1. Establishing router adjacencies

Down State No Hello received Init State Hello received, but not with this routers Router ID Hi, my name is Carlos. Hi, my name is Maria. Two-way State Hello received, and with this routers Router ID Hi, Maria, my name is Carlos. Hi, Carlos, my name is Maria. 2. Electing DR and BDR Multi-access (broadcast) segments only ExStart State with DR and BDR Two-way State with all other routers 3. Discovering Routes ExStart State 4. Calculating the Routing Table Exchange State Loading State 5. Maintaining the LSDB and Routing Table Full State

142

OSPF STUB AREAS

A stub area has only one entry and exit point. Topology changes in other areas do not affect stub areas. The ABR is still the only way out.

143

STUB VS. TOTALLY STUB

Similarities
ABR does not advertise Type 4 or 5 LSAs into the area There should be no OE1 or OE2 routes in the area ABR advertises a default route to the internal routers Neither area can have an ASBR in it Neither area can be the backbone

Differences
Totally stub does not advertise Type 3 LSAs either Stub routing table: O, O IA, and default route Totally stub routing table: O and default route Stub Area R1(config-router)#area 1 stub R2(config-router)#area 1 stub Command must be entered on all routers in the area Totally Stubby Area R1(config-router)#area 1 stub no-summary R2(config-router)#area 1 stub ABR is configured with stub no-summary Internal routers are configured with stub

144

NSSA
Many service providers have OSPF areas that have only one exit point, but the areas contain an ASBR Solution: Not-So-Stubby Areas (NSSAs) The ASBR originates a Type 7 LSA The ABR converts from Type 7 to Type 5 Not-So-Stubby Area R1(config-router)#area 1 nssa R2(config-router)#area 1 nssa R2(config-router)#redistribute static Command must be entered on all routers in the area ASBR must be configured to inject non-OSPF routes Totally Not-So-Stubby Area R1(config-router)#area 1 nssa no-summary R2(config-router)#area 1 stub ABR is configured with nssa no-summary Internal routers are configured with nssa 145

BORDER GATEWAY PROTOCOL General Terms

IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol) - RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF = Routing protocol used to exchange routing information within an autonomous system. EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol) - BGP = Routing protocol used to exchange routing information between autonomous systems.

Autonomous System A set of routers under the single technical administration, using an IGP and common metrics to route packets within the AS, and using an EGP to route packets to other ASs.
BGP is a path vector routing protocol.

146

BGP

BGP is a path vector routing protocol. BGP uses a list of AS numbers through which a packet must pass to reach a destination. The function of BGP is to: Exchange routing information between autonomous systems Guarantee the selection of a loop free path. BGP4 is the first version of BGP that supports CIDR and route aggregation. Common IGPs such as RIP, OSPF, and EIGRP use technical metrics. BGP does not use technical metrics. BGP makes routing decisions based on network policies, or rules (later) BGP does not show the details of topologies within each AS. BGP sees only a tree of autonomous systems. Cisco routers maintain a separate routing table to hold BGP routes.

147

BGP
BGP updates are carried using TCP on port 179. In contrast, RIP updates use UDP port 520 OSPF, IGRP, EIGRP does not use a Layer 4 protocol Because BGP requires TCP, IP connectivity must exist between BGP peers. TCP connections must also be negotiated between them before updates can be exchanged. Therefore, BGP inherits those reliable, connection-oriented properties from TCP.

148

BGP MESSAGE TYPES

Before establishing a BGP peer connection the two neighbors must perform the standard TCP three-way handshake and open a TCP connection to port 179.

After the TCP session is established, BGP peers exchanges several messages to open and confirm connection parameters and to send BGP routing information.
All BGP messages are unicast to the one neighbor over the TCP connection. There are four BGP message types: Type 1: OPEN Type 2: KEEPALIVE Type 3: UPDATE Type 4: NOTIFICATION

149

BGP STATES BGP FSM includes six states:

Idle Connect Active OpenSent Open Confirm Established

150

BGP STATES
IDLE State
BGP always begins in the Idle state, in which it refuses all incoming connections. It is normally initiated by an administrator or a network event. When Start event occurs, the BGP process: Initializes all BGP resources Starts the ConnectRetry timer Initializes a TCP connection to the neighbor Listens for a TCP initialization from the neighbor Changes its state to Connect

CONNECT State
If the connection is unsuccessful, the BGP process: Continues to listen for a connection to be initiated by the neighbor Resets the ConnectRetry timer Transitions to the Active state

ACTIVE State
In this state, the BGP process is waiting for the TCP connection to be completed. If the connection is successful, the BGP process: Clears the ConnectRetry timer Completes initialization Sends an Open message to the neighbor Transitions to the OpenSent state

151

BGP STATES
Open Sent State
In this state an Open message has been sent and BGP is waiting to hear an Open message from its neighbor. When an Open message is received, all its fields are checked. If errors exist, a Notification message is sent and the state transitions to Idle. If no errors exist, a Keepalive message is sent and the Keepalive timer is set, the peer is determined to be internal or external, and state is changed to OpenConfirm.

Open Confirm State

In this state, the BGP process waits for a Keepalive or Notification message. If a Keepalive message is received, the state transitions to Established. If a Notification message is received, or a TCP disconnect is received, the state transitions to Idle.

Established State
In this state, the BGP connection is fully established and the peers can exchange Update, Keepalive messages. If an Update or Keepalive message is received, the Hold timer is restarted. If a Notification message is received, the state transitions to Idle.

152

BGP PATH ATTRIBUTES

Much of the work you will do configuring BGP focuses on path attributes. Each route has its own set of defined attributes, which can include path information, route preference, next-hop, and aggregation information. Administrators use these values to enforce routing policy. Based on attribute values, you can configure BGP to filter routing information, prefer certain paths, or otherwise customize its behavior. Path attributes come in four different types: Well-known mandatory Well-known discretionary Optional transitive Optional non-transitive

153

BGP PATH ATTRIBUTES

Well-known mandatory
An attribute that has to exist in the BGP UPDATE packet. It must be recognized by all BGP implementations. If a well-known attribute is missing, a notification error will be generated; this ensures that all BGP implementations agree on a standard set of attributes. Example: AS_PATH attribute.

Well-known discretionary
An attribute that is recognized by all BGP implementations But may or may not be sent in the BGP UPDATE message. Example: LOCAL_PREF

Optional transitive
An attribute that may or may not be, recognized by all BGP implementations (thus, optional). Because the attribute is transitive, BGP should accept and advertise the attribute even if it isnt recognized. Example: COMMUNITY An attribute that may or may not be, recognized by all BGP implementations. Whether or not the receiving BGP router recognizes the attribute, it is non-transitive, and should not be passed along to other BGP peers. Example: ORIGINATOR_ID

Optional non-transitive

154

BGP PATH ATTRIBUTES

Attribute Code 1-ORIGIN 2-AS_PATH 3-NEXT_HOP 4-MULTI_EXIT_DISC 5-LOCAL_PREF 6-ATOMIC_AGGREGATE 7-AGGREGATOR 8-COMMUNITY 9-ORIGINATOR_ID 10-Cluster List 11-Destination Preference 12-Advertiser 13-rcid_path 255-Reserved Type Well-known mandatory Well-known mandatory Well-known mandatory Optional non-transitive Well-known discretionary Well-known discretionary Well-known discretionary Optional transitive (Cisco) Optional non-transitive (Cisco) Optional non-transitive (Cisco) (MCI) (Baynet) (Baynet) [md]

Summary of the BGP Path Selection Process BGP selects only one path as the best path. When the path is selected, BGP puts the selected path in its routing table and propagates the path to its neighbors.

155

BGP CONFIGURATION
To begin configuring a BGP process, issue the following familiar command: Router(config)#router bgp AS-number BGP configuration commands appear on the surface to mirror the syntax of familiar IGP (for example, RIP, OSPF) commands. Although the syntax is similar, the function of these commands is significantly different. Note: Cisco IOS permits only one BGP process to run at a time, thus, a router cannot belong to more than one AS.

156

EBGP MULTI HOP

EBGP neighbors must be directly connected in order to establish an EBGP session. However, EBGP multihop is a Cisco IOS option allows RTW and RTU to be logically connected in an EBGP session, despite the fact that RTV does not support BGP. The EBGP multihop option is configured on each peer with the following command: Router(config-router)#neighbor IP-address ebgp-multihop [hops]

RTW(config)#router bgp 200 RTW(config-router)#neighbor 1.1.1.2 remote-as 300 RTW(config-router)#neighbor 1.1.1.2 ebgp-multihop 2 RTU(config)#router bgp 300 RTU(config-router)#neighbor 1.1.1.1 remote-as 200 RTU(config-router)#neighbor 1.1.1.1 ebgp-multihop 2

157

PATH SELECTION PROCESS

BGP uses the following criteria, in the order presented, to select a path for a destination: 1. If the path specifies a next hop that is inaccessible, drop the update. 2. Prefer the path with the largest weight. 3. If the weights are the same, prefer the path with the largest local preference. 4. If no route was originated, prefer the route that has the shortest AS_path. 6. If all paths have the same AS_path length, prefer the path with the lowest origin type (where IGP is lower than EGP, and EGP is lower than Incomplete). 7. If the origin codes are the same, prefer the path with the lowest MED attribute. 8. If the paths have the same MED, prefer the external path over the internal path.

158

MPLS VPN
MPLS - VPN is generally Virtual Private Network in which various customers are allowed to communicate with each other through a common cloud. VRF will be configured for each routing instance / customer. VRF is VPN Routing and Forwarding. Each VRF will have a VRF name with CASE-SENSITIVE. VRF is not operational unless you configure RD. Each VRF will have unique Route Targets both import and import. We have all these VRFs to be participated in BGP to propagate routing information.

159

MPBGP
In MPLS network, we use MP-BGP Normal BGP uses IPv4 header between peers. MP-BGP uses VPNV4. VPNV4 prepends 64bit header infront of IPV4 IP header packet to make it different from. To make this enable we need to add the following command in BGP configuration.

address-family vpnv4 unicast.

The purpose of the VRF is to have the separate routing instance for each customers. In which the customer can be reached to the destination without any issues in public network.

160

ICMP & TRACEROUTE

ICMP (Internet Control Messaging Protocol) is used for IP troubleshooting in Networks. Uses ICMP message within an IP Packet, Protocol field = 1 Both are layer 3 protocols. (ICMP is considered as a network layer protocol.) Does not use TCP or UDP, but may be acted upon by the receiver using TCP or UDP. Format ping ip address (or ping <cr> for extended ping) ping 172.30.1.25

161

ICMP & TRACEROUTE (CONTINUED)

Trace ( Cisco = traceroute, tracert,) is used to trace the probable path a packet takes between source and destination. Probable, because IP is a connectionless protocol, and different packets may take different paths between the same source and destination networks, although this is not usually the case. Trace will show the path the packet takes to the destination, but the return path may be different. This is more likely the case in the Internet, and less likely within your own autonomous system. Uses ICMP message within an IP Packet Both are layer 3 protocols. Uses UDP as a the transport layer. Traceroute uses ping (echo requests) Traceroute sets the TTL (Time To Live) field in the IP Header, initially to 1
10.0.0.0/8 RTA RTB 172.16.0.0/16 RTC 192.168.10.0/24 RTD

.1

.2

.1

.2

.1

.2

162

ADD-ONs (DNS & DHCP)

163

DNS CONCEPTS
Domains Uses a hierarchical name space Each domain is represented by a branch of the hierarchy The top of the hierarchy is called the root; all domains branch from the root Domains represent the conceptual aspect of the DNS system Zones Zones are the embodiment of one or more domains on a system that provide name resolution: a DNS Server Typically there is a one-to-one correspondence between Domains and Zones, although a zone can have more than one domain Zone Types: Master Slave Forward Stub Delegation The process by which a parent domain turns over responsibility of a child domain to a different, unique Zone

164

THE BASICS
DNS is simple: Ask it a question, it gives you an answer; the trick: how the answer is obtained It was designed as a rudimentary directory (data store is simplistic) The most common questions and answers (informaion supplied by this directory): Please translate a name to an IP Address Please translate an IP address to a name Please give me the IP Address of a gateway so I can deliver e-mail

165

THE BASICS
Client-Server architecture Client is called a resolver Client queries a pre-configured (manually or via DCHP) DNS server The DNS server looks up the query data In its configuration files In its cache from prior queries From other DNS servers Developed at Berkeley Hierarchical name space Static mapping originally; dynamic capabilities added later Defined in a number of IETF RFCs. Predominantly RFC 1034 and 1035

166

THE BASICS
DNS is implemented in a piece of software that is called a DNS Server. The most common implementation of the DNS Server is called BIND (Berkeley Internet Name Domain) Server.

BIND is currently maintained by an organization called Internet System Consortium (ISC). The latest version is BIND 9.3.3 and 8.4.7
BIND incorporates most RFCs; it is the reference implementation for all DNS servers

167

NAME SPACE STRUCTURE . (root)

edu

com
ins

org

gov

us
company

finance

mfg

hr

ins.com Domain

company.us Domain

168

THE SERVERS
A DNS Server typically has ultimate responsibility (authority) for a part of the DNS Name Space hierarchy, on a domain boundary Maintains information about Domains in Zones Zones contain the information that is used by the DNS server to answer questions asked of it Questions are called queries Answers are called responses

169

SERVERS

170

DOMAINS AND ZONES

Domains Domains represent the conceptual aspect of the DNS system (the theoretical representation of the domain name space) Each domain is represented by a branch of the hierarchy Zones Zones are the embodiment of one or more domains on a system that provide name resolution: a DNS Server Typically there is a one-to-one correspondence between Domains and Zones, although a zone can have more than one domain Zone Types (more on these later): Master Slave Forward Stub

171

DOMAINS AND ZONES Delegation

The process by which a parent domain turns over responsibility of a child domain to a different, unique Zone Delegation is what makes the distribution of the DNS name space to autonomous organizations possible

172

DNS CONCEPTS RESOLUTION

173

CACHING
When a DNS server is queried for information, it must always find and go to the authoritative source That authoritative source might be itself (if a Master of a Slave for that Zone) Any information that a DNS server acquires or learns from other DNS servers are retained in memory; this is called caching Allows subsequent queries that are identical or related to learned information reduces or eliminate queries to the authoritative source The authoritative source will indicate to the asking DNS server how long information can be retained before refreshing the information from the authoritative source; this is called Time-To-Live for a DNS response, or TTL

174

DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL - DHCP

RFC 2131 Runs over UDP as well Provides automatic configuration of the host connected to network or booted Provides hosts with initial configuration information upon bootup:
IP address with subnet mask, default gateway, IP address of the DNS server .

175

175

DHCP (CONT.)
server A

(not selected) DHCP discover determine configuration DHCP offer

client

server B

(selected) DHCP discover determine configuration

DHCP offer

select configuration DHCP request DHCP request

DHCP ack

Initialization completes using the allocated configuration graceful shutdown DHCP release
176

discard lease

DHCP MESSAGES
DHCPDISCOVER
The client broadcasts message in search of available DHCP servers.

DHCPOFFER
The server response to the client DHCPDISCOVER with offer of configuration parameters .

DHCPREQUEST
The client broadcasts to the server, requesting offered parameters from one server specifically. Confirms correctness of previously allocated address after, e.g., system reboot. Extends the lease on a particular network address.

DHCPRELEASE
The client-to-server communication, relinquishing network address and canceling remaining lease.

177

177

DHCP MESSAGES (CONT.)

DHCPACK
The server-to-client communication with configuration parameters, including committed network address.

DHCPNAK
Server to client indicating client's notion of network address is incorrect (e.g., client has moved to new subnet) or client's lease as expired

DHCPDECLINE
The client-to-server communication, indicating that the network address is already in use.

DHCPINFORM
The client-to-server communication, asking for only local configuration parameters that the client already has externally configured as an address.

178

178

REFERENCES
http://compnetworking.about.com/od/basicnetworkingconcepts/Networking_B asics_Key_Concepts_in_Computer_Networking.htm http://www.cse.tkk.fi/fi/opinnot/T-110.1100/1999_Tik110.250/Kalvot/TKK_2_99/index.htm http://www.cisco.com/cisco/web/psa/reference.html https://learningportal.juniper.net/juniper/user_activity_info.aspx?id=769 http://www.routeralley.com/ra/docs/stp.pdf http://www.ircbeginner.com/ircinfo/Routing_Article.pdf

179