MAAE 2300 - Fluid Mechanics

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Carleton University

Lectures 1 & 2 INTRODUCTION: CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

(Fluid Mechanics; 4th edition; Frank M. White)

Dr. Vinh Q. Tang Vinh_Tang@Carleton.ca Office: ME2186

Contents
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Basic Concepts & Definitions Dimensions and Units Properties of the Velocity Field Thermodynamic Properties Transport Properties Flow Patterns

1. Basic Concepts & Definitions

Fluid Mechanics - Study of fluids at rest, in motion, and the effects of fluids on boundaries Fluid - A substance which moves and deforms continuously as a result of an applied shear stress

Continuum Concept
Fluids consist of discrete particles, the molecules. But for engineering purpose, we only need average effects due to many molecules. We can assume that fluids (and solids) are continua, i.e., continuous distributions of matter
This is satisfactory if the mean free path, , of the particle is much less than the significant length of our problem.
Example for hydrogen at 150C and 1 atm: =1.8x10-7 m, so for many practical problems continuum assumption is ok.

Pressure and Velocity

Two important properties in the study of fluid mechanics: Pressure: The normal stress on any plane through a fluid element at rest
The direction of pressure forces will always be perpendicular to the surface of interest.

Velocity: The rate of change of position at a point in a flow field.

It is used to specify flow field characteristics; flow rate; momentum; and viscous effects for a fluid in motion

2. Dimensions and Units

Primary Dimensions in SI and BG Systems
SI: International System of units BG: British gravitational units

Secondary Dimensions in Fluid Mechanics

Other Units
S.I.: 1 Newton (N) = 1 kg m/s2 British Gravitational System: 1 lbf = 1 slug ft/s2 (1 slug = 32.174 lbm)

Unit Consistency
Units in an equation must be consistent

Example 1
Mechanical Energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy

ME

1 2 mV 2

mgz

Substituting given values of parameters

1 km 2 m ME (7.1kg )(23 ) (7.1kg )(9.81 2 )(550cm) 2 hr s

As shown the units are not consistent. Must convert

Recall:
1 km 2 m ME (7.1kg )(23 ) (7.1kg )(9.81 2 )(550cm) 2 hr s

Converting units:
1 km 2 hr m 1m 2 1000 m 2 ME (7.1kg )(23 ) ( ) ( ) (7.1kg )(9.81 2 )(550cm)( ) 2 hr 3600 sec km s 100cm

144.9kg.m2 / s 2 383kg.m2 / s 2 N 2 2 (527.9kg.m / s )(1 ) 2 kg.m / s

527.9 N .m 527.9 J where 1 J 1N.m

Other Notes on Units

Weight is a force (but mass is not) Force is defined by the acceleration that it produces on a standard mass:

F m.a
m 1N (1kg ).(1 2 ) s m On earth 1kg weighs: (1kg ).( gearth ) (1kg )(9.81 2 )
9.81N

ft English system: 1lbf (1lbm ).(32.2 2 ) sec

On earth 1lbm weighs:

ft (1lbm ).( gearth ) (1lbm ).(32.2 2 ) 1lb f sec

1slug 32.2lbm by definition 1slug 32.2lbm

To give 1 slug an acceleration of 1 ft/sec2 requires a force of 1 lbf

ft From previous slide: 1lb f 32.2lbm . 2 sec

And :

1slug 32.2lbm

Thus :

ft 1lb f 1slug. 2 sec

Example 2 Given: Following pump power requirements

Determine: The power required in kW

Recall

Substitute values and introduce conversions, we get:

(Note: We used 1 lbf = 1 slug . ft/s2 )

Tips
At the start of the problem, convert all parameters with units to the base units being used in the problem, e.g.:
For S.I. problems, convert all parameters to kg, m, and s For BG problems, convert all parameters to slug, ft, and s

Then convert the final answer to the desired final units.

3. Properties of the velocity Field (1)

Key properties: Pressure & Velocity Volume flow rate

Vn : the component of the velocity normal to the surface area across which the fluid flows

3. Properties of the velocity Field (2)

Mass flow rate

Vn : the component of the velocity normal to the surface area across which the fluid flows Note: Vn is measured relative to the moving boundary

4. Thermodynamic Properties
The usual thermodynamic properties are also important in fluid mechanics
P : Pressure (kPa, psi) T : Temperature (0C, 0F) : Density (kg/m3, slug/ft3)

State Relations for Gases

All gases at high temperatures and low pressures (relative to their critical point) are in good agreement with the perfect-gas law

Each gas has its own constant R, equal to a universal constant divided by the molecular weight

where = 49,700 ft2/(s2.R) = 8314 m2/(s2.K). Most problems in this class are for air, with M = 28.97

Standard Air Density

Recall:
Substitute values for and M(for air), we get:

Density can be determined from

P= RT
Where, standard atmospheric pressure is 2116 lbf/ft2, and standard temperature is 60F or 520R. Thus standard air density is

Specific heats
As a first approximation in airflow analysis we commonly take cp, cv, and k to be constant
The ratio of specific heats of a perfect gas : ; kair =1.4

Actually, for all gases, cp and cv increase gradually with temperature, and k decreases gradually

State Relations for Liquids

Liquids are nearly incompressible and have a single reasonably constant specific heat Thus an idealized state relation for a liquid is

Water is normally taken to have a density of 1.94 slugs/ft3 and a specific heat cp = 25,200 ft2/(s2..R). The steam tables may be used if more accuracy is required.

 The density of a liquid usually decreases slightly with temperature and increases moderately with pressure. If we neglect the temperature effect, an empirical pressure-density relation for a liquid is:

where B and n are dimensionless parameters which vary slightly with temperature and pa and a are standard atmospheric values. Water can be fitted approximately to the values B 3000 and n 7.

Alternative for Density

: Specific Weight (weight per unit volume) (N/m3, lbf/ft3)

=g
For H2O: = 9790 N/m3 = 62.4 lbf/ft3 For Air: = 11.8 N/m3 = 0.0752 lbf/ft3

S.G. : Specific Gravity = / (ref)

(ref) = (water at 1 atm, 20C) for liquids = 998 kg/m3 = (air at 1 atm, 20C) for gases = 1.205 kg/m3

Example 3
Determine the static pressure difference indicated by an 18 cm column of fluid (liquid) with a specific gravity of 0.85. See note
P = g h below
= (SG) . . h = (0.85) (9790 N/m3 ) (0.18 m) = 1498 N/m2 = 1.5 kPa

Note:

liquid SG water

water .g

(SG).( ) liquid .g

5. Transport Properties
e.g.:
coefficient of viscosity (dynamic viscosity) {M / L t }
kinematic viscosity ( / ) { L2 / t }

They relate to the diffusion of momentum due to shear stresses, as seen in following slides

Stress and Pressure

Force F Stress : Area A

Tangential Force Shear stress, Area

Normal Force Normal Stress, Area
F (compressi ve) Pr essure : Compressiv e Stress A
Fluid cannot sustain tensile stress

 A solid can resist a shear stress by a static deformation; a fluid cannot Any shear stress applied to a fluid, no matter how small, will result in motion of that fluid

The fluid moves and deforms continuously as long as the shear stress is applied.

Newtonian fluid
A fluid which has a linear relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient

Note: The linearity coefficient in the equation is the coefficient of viscosity

 Classic Problem: Viscous flow induced by relative motion between two parallel plates

Note: No slip at either plate

No-Slip Condition
At solid boundaries, the solid and fluid molecules interlock, and there is no relative velocity between the fluid and the solid (i.e., no slip)
Its based on empirical fact, no matter how smooth the solid surface is. Exceptions are for conditions at very low pressures, such as in outerspace.

Surface Tension
Molecules deep within the liquid repel each other because of their close packing Molecules at the surface are less dense and attract each other. Since half of their neighbors are missing, the mechanical effect is that the surface is in tension We can account adequately for surface effects in fluid mechanics with the concept of surface tension

 Surface tension acts in the plane of the liquid surface, and its magnitude measured in N/m (see Example 1.9) The two most common interfaces are water-air and mercury-air For a clean surface at 20C 68F, the measured surface tension is: 0.0050 lbf/ft = 0.073 N/m air-water 0.033 lbf/ft = 0.48 N/m air-mercury

Pressure change across a curved interface due to surface tension

Flow regions
Flows constrained by solid surfaces can typically be divided into two regimes: A) Flow near a bounding surface with
1. significant velocity gradients 2. significant shear stresses This flow region is referred to as a "boundary layer

B) Flows far from bounding surface with

1. negligible velocity gradients 2. negligible shear stresses 3. significant inertia effects This flow region is referred to as "free stream" or "inviscid flow region"

Reynolds number (Re)

An important parameter in identifying the characteristics of the flow regions

This physically represents the ratio of inertia forces in the flow to viscous forces For most flows of engineering significance, both the characteristics of the flow and the important effects due to the flow, e.g., drag, pressure drop, aerodynamic loads, etc., are dependent on this parameter

Laminar Flow & Turbulent Flow

Very low Re indicates viscous creeping motion
where inertia effects are negligible

Moderate Re implies a smoothly varying laminar flow High Re probably spells turbulent flow
which is slowly varying in the time-mean but has superimposed strong random high-frequency fluctuations

 Low Re : laminar flow High Re : turbulent flow Moderate Re : transition flow

(a)
(b)

Flow issuing at constant speed from a pipe: (a) high viscosity, low-Reynolds-number, laminar flow; (b) low-viscosity, high-Reynolds-number, turbulent flow.

(a)
(b)
(c) (d)

Formation of a turbulent puff in pipe flow: (a)and (b) near the entrance; (c) somewhat downstream; (d) far downstream

6. Flow Patterns
Fluid flow is generally three-dimensional
Pressures and velocities change in all directions

But, one or two-dimensional flow analysis can be useful for many practical applications
Where the changes are most significant in one or two directions only

 One-Dimensional Flow
Conditions vary only in the direction of flow not across the cross-section

In certain pipe flow application we can assume 1-D flow (Average or mean velocity over the cross section is used)

 Two-Dimensional Flow
Conditions vary in the direction of flow and in another direction, which is at right angle to the flow direction Flow patterns in two-dimensional flow can be shown by curved lines on a plane

Flow pattern over a weir

 Streamlines & Streamtube

The most common method of flow-pattern presentation: (a)Streamlines are everywhere tangent to the local velocity vector (b)Streamtube is formed by a closed collection of streamlines

 Streamline over an aerofoil an example

Examples
Example 1.1 Example 1.3 Example 1.7 Example 1.9