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Data Networks

Sharing data through the use of floppy disks is not an efficient or cost-effective manner in which to operate businesses. Businesses needed a solution that would successfully address the following three problems: How to avoid duplication of equipment and resources How to communicate efficiently How to set up and manage a network Businesses realized that networking technology could increase productivity while saving money.

Networking Devices
Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is referred to as a device. These devices are broken up into two classifications. end-user devices network devices End-user devices include computers, printers, scanners, and other devices that provide services directly to the user. Network devices include all the devices that connect the end-user devices together to allow them to communicate.

The Cloud
The cloud is used in diagrams to represent where the connection to the internet is. It also represents all of the devices on the internet.

Client/Server Network
In a client/server arrangement, network services are located on a dedicated computer called a server. The server responds to the requests of clients. The server is a central computer that is continuously available to respond to requests from clients for file, print, application, and other services. Most network operating systems adopt the form of a client/server relationship.

Hub
Hubs concentrate connections. In other words, they take a group of hosts and allow the network to see them as a single unit.

This is done passively, without any other effect on the data transmission. Active hubs not only concentrate hosts, but they also regenerate signals. Hub is a physical layer device.

Bridge
Bridges convert network transmission data formats as well as perform basic data transmission management. Bridges, as the name implies, provide connections between LANs. Not only do bridges connect LANs, but they also perform a check on the data to determine whether it should cross the bridge or not. This makes each part of the network more efficient.

Switch
Switches are Data Link layer devices. Switches add more intelligence to data transfer management. Switches can determine whether data should remain on a LAN or not, and they can transfer the data to the connection that needs that data.
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Network Topologies
Network topology defines the structure of the network.
One part of the topology definition is the physical topology, which is the actual layout of the wire or media. The other part is the logical topology,which defines how the media is accessed by the hosts for sending data.

Physical Topologies

Bus Topology
A bus topology uses a single backbone cable that is terminated at both ends. All the hosts connect directly to this backbone.

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Ring Topology
A ring topology connects one host to the next and the last host to the first. This creates a physical ring of cable.

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Star Topology
A star topology connects all cables to a central point of concentration.

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Extended Star Topology


An extended star topology links individual stars together by connecting the hubs and/or switches.This topology can extend the scope and coverage of the network.

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Mesh Topology
A mesh topology is implemented to provide as much protection as possible from interruption of service. Each host has its own connections to all other hosts. Although the Internet has multiple paths to any one location, it does not adopt the full mesh topology.

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LANs, MANs, & WANs


One early solution was the creation of local-area network (LAN) standards which provided an open set of guidelines for creating network hardware and software, making equipment from different companies compatible.
What was needed was a way for information to move efficiently and quickly, not only within a company, but also from one business to another. The solution was the creation of metropolitan-area networks (MANs) and wide-area networks (WANs).
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LANs

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WANs

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Bandwidth

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Measuring Bandwidth

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LAN Physical Layer


Various symbols are used to represent media types.

The function of media is to carry a flow of information through a LAN. Networking media are considered Layer 1, or physical layer, components of LANs.
Each media has advantages and disadvantages. Some of the advantage or disadvantage comparisons concern: Cable length Cost Ease of installation Susceptibility to interference Coaxial cable, optical fiber, and even free space can carry network signals. However, the principal medium that will be studied is Category 5 unshielded twisted-pair cable (Cat 5 UTP)
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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

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UTP Implementation
EIA/TIA specifies an RJ-45 connector for UTP cable.

The RJ-45 transparent end connector shows eight colored wires.


Four of the wires carry the voltage and are considered tip (T1 through T4). The other four wires are grounded and are called ring (R1 through R4). The wires in the first pair in a cable or a connector are designated as T1 & R1

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Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

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Coaxial Cable

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Fiber Optic Cable

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Switch
Switches are Data Link layer devices.

Each Switch port has a unique MAC address.


Connected host MAC addresses are learned and stored on a MAC address table.
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Ports
Port numbers are used to distinguish between different

services that run over transport protocols such as TCP, UDP, DCCP, and SCTP.
IANA Ranges

The IANA has divided the port number into three ranges:
Well-known ports: The port ranging from 0 to 1,023 are assigned and controlled by IANA.

Registered ports: The port ranging from 1,024 to 49,151 are assigned and controlled by IANA.
Dynamic ports.: The port ranging from 49,152 to 65,535 29 are neither controlled nor registered.

Ports

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Internet Addresses
IP Addressing is a hierarchical structure.An IP address combines two identifiers into one number. This number must be a unique number, because duplicate addresses would make routing impossible.The first part identifies the system's network address.The second part, called the host part, identifies which particular machine it is on the network.

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IP Address Classes
IP addresses are divided into classes to define the large, medium, and small networks.

Class A addresses are assigned to larger networks. Class B addresses are used for medium-sized networks, & Class C for small networks.

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Identifying Address Classes

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Address Class Prefixes


To accommodate different size networks and aid in classifying these networks, IP addresses are divided into groups called classes.This is classful addressing.

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Network and Host Division


Each complete 32-bit IP address is broken down into a network part and a host part. A bit or bit sequence at the start of each address determines the class of the address.

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Class A Addresses
The Class A address was designed to support extremely large networks, with more than 16 million host addresses available. Class A IP addresses use only the first octet to indicate the network address. The remaining three octets provide for host addresses.

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Class B Addresses
The Class B address was designed to support the needs of moderate to large-sized networks.A Class B IP address uses the first two of the four octets to indicate the network address. The other two octets specify host addresses.

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Class C Addresses
The Class C address space is the most commonly used of the original address classes.This address space was intended to support small networks with a maximum of 254 hosts.

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Class D Addresses
The Class D address class was created to enable multicasting in an IP address. A multicast address is a unique network address that directs packets with that destination address to predefined groups of IP addresses. Therefore, a single station can simultaneously transmit a single stream of data to multiple recipients.

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Class E Addresses
A Class E address has been defined. However, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) reserves these addresses for its own research. Therefore, no Class E addresses have been released for use in the Internet.

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Public IP Addresses
Unique addresses are required for each device on a network.

Originally, an organization known as the Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) handled this procedure.
InterNIC no longer exists and has been succeeded by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). No two machines that connect to a public network can have the same IP address because public IP addresses are global and standardized.

All machines connected to the Internet agree to conform to the system.


Public IP addresses must be obtained from an Internet service provider (ISP) or a registry at some expense.

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Private IP Addresses
Private IP addresses are another solution to the problem of the impending exhaustion of public IP addresses.As mentioned, public networks require hosts to have unique IP addresses. However, private networks that are not connected to the Internet may use any host addresses, as long as each host within the private network is unique.

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Introduction to Subnetting
Subnetting a network means to use the subnet mask to divide the network and break a large network up into smaller, more efficient and manageable segments, or subnets. With subnetting, the network is not limited to the default Class A, B, or C network masks and there is more flexibility in the network design. Subnet addresses include the network portion, plus a subnet field and a host field. The ability to decide how to divide the original host portion into the new subnet and host fields provides addressing flexibility for the network administrator.
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The 32-Bit Binary IP Address

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Numbers That Show Up In Subnet Masks (Memorize Them!)

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Static Assignment of an IP Address


Static assignment works best on small networks. The administrator manually assigns and tracks IP addresses for each computer, printer, or server on the intranet. Network printers, application servers, and routers should be assigned static IP addresses.

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Introduction to Super netting


In supernetting, an organization can combine several class C addresses to create a larger range of addresses(supernetwork). Suppernet Mask A supernet mask is the reverse of the subnet mask. In a supernet mask, we change some 1s in the netid section to 0s. Be aware that the position of 1s in the supernet mask defines the lowest address.

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Example of Supernetwork

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Introduction to DNS
The mechanism by which Internet software translates names to addresses and vice versa. The Internet users use DNS to reference anything by name on the Internet.

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DNS Components
A. DOMAIN

A Domain is a sub tree of a larger tree identified by a domain name.


It Contains resource records and sub-domains.

Some resource records point to authoritative server for sub-domains / zones eg. the root contains pointers to .ye.
Yemen.net.ye is a domain.

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DNS Components
C. Name Servers Servers responsible for answering DNS queries by contacting remote DNS server(s). Exists at all levels of hierarchy

Authoritative name servers hold part of the DNS database(zonefile)


One name server can serve more then one zone

Many name servers should serve the same zone


Some name servers are authoritative for certain zones
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How DNS Servers work(web)


You type http://www.google.com into your web browser and hit enter.

Step 1: Your PC sends a resolution request to its configured DNS Server, typically at your ISP.

Your PC ISP Recursive DNS server

Tell me the Address of www.google.com

How DNS Servers work(web)


Step 2: Your ISPs recursive name server starts by asking one of the root servers predefined in its hints file.
Tell me the Address of www.google.com

ISP Recursive DNS server Root Servers

I dont know the address but I know whos authoritative for the com domain ask them

How DNS Servers work(web)


Step 3: Your ISPs recursive name server then asks one of the com name servers as directed.

Tell me the Address of www.google.com

ISP Recursive DNS server

com DNS servers

I dont know the address but I know whos authoritative for the google.com domain ask them

How DNS Servers work(web)


Step 4: Your ISPs recursive name server then asks one of the google.com name servers as directed.
Tell me the Address of www.google.com

ISP Recursive DNS server

google.com DNS server

The Address of www.google.com is 216.239.53.99

How DNS Servers work(web)


Step 5: ISP DNS server then send the answer back to your PC. The DNS server will remember the answer for a period of time.

Your PC ISP Recursive DNS server

The Address of www.google.com is 216.239.53.99

How DNS Servers work(web)


Step 6: Your PC can then make the actual HTTP request to the web server.
Send me the www.google.com web page

Your PC www.google.com web server

Here it is!

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