Antenna Theory and Design Slides 1

ANTENNA THEORY AND DESIGN
FALL 2013
Instructor: Veysel Demir
Antenna Fundamentals and
Definitions
9/13/2013 Prepared by Dr. Veysel Demir, EE, NIU 2
Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves in space are the basis of radio
transmission over great distances without direct wire connection
between the transmitting and receiving points.

At the transmitting and receiving stations, radio signals exist in
the form of high-frequency alternating currents in conductors
and in electronic amplifying devices.

Between the transmitter and receiver they exist as
electromagnetic waves in space.

Antennas are the devices that act as go-betweens.
Transmitter and Receiver
Transmitter:
The antenna converts the energy of the electrical currents
into the form of an electromagnetic field.
It launches the waves into space.
Receiver:
The antenna captures energy from the arriving field, and it
converts the field variations into current and voltage replicas
of those at the transmitter
The voltages and currents are much smaller in amplitude -
need to use amplifiers.
Characteristics of Electromagnetic Waves
A wave is an oscillatory motion of any kind.

Electromagnetic waves are electric and magnetic field variations

All waves are characterized by the property called propagation.

Waves travel at characteristic speeds
depending on the type of wave and the nature of the propagation
medium

In free space electromagnetic waves travel

In other propagation media their speed is less:
8
3 10 / c m s =
r r
c
v
c
=
Characteristics of Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves may not travel through some
medium.
At very low radio frequencies radio waves cannot penetrate
the ionosphere; they are reflected from it.
At very high frequencies waves pass through the ionosphere
unimpeded.

The atmospheric layer bounded by the ionosphere at the top
and Earths surface at the bottom forms a guiding structure
for the propagation of radio waves in the HF band.
Atmosphere as guiding structure for radio waves.
Frequency and Wavelength
The oscillations of waves are periodic
They are characterized by a frequency
The frequency is expressed in Hertz (Hz)

Complex waves may contain more than one frequency.

A single-frequency wave motion has the form of a sinusoid.
0
2 2
( , ) cos
t x
y x t A
T
t t
|
| |
= +
|
\ .
magnitude time period spatial wavelength reference phase
v
f
=
Sinusoidal Wave in Lossless Medium
0
2 2
0 ( , ) cos
t x
y x t A
T
t t
|
| |
= =
|
\ .
Frequency Spectrum
Frequency Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum covers an enormous range of
frequencies
including cosmic-ray radiation with frequencies in excess of 10
20
Hz.

The International Telecommunications Union (ITU), an
organization of the United Nations, makes the general guidelines
for the assignment and use of frequencies.

For the United States,
federal governmental usages coordinated by the National
Telecommunications and Information Agency (NTIA)
nonfederal governmental frequency usages coordinated by Federal
Communications Commission (FCC)
The Radio Frequency Spectrum
Standard Radar Band Designations
Frequency Allocations
Some of the better-known frequency allocations within the United States include:

AM (amplitude modulation) broadcast: 5351705 kHz

FM (frequency modulation) broadcast: 88108 MHz

Television in 6 MHz bandwidth numbered channels:
26, 5460 MHz, . . . , 8288 MHz
713, 174180 MHz, . . . , 210216 MHz
1436, 470476 MHz, . . . , 600608 MHz
Note: 614698 MHz (without channel numbers) is allocated to TV. The frequencies
608806 MHz were previously allocated for TV channels 3769.

GPS (global positioning satellite): 1227.6 MHz (military); 1575.42 MHz and
1227.6 (civilian);Telemetry on 2227.5 MHz

GSM-850: uplink 824849 MHz, downlink 869894 MHz

GSM-1900: uplink 18501910 MHz, downlink 19301990 MHz

ISM (industrial, scientific and medical) 902928 MHz, 2.42.5 GHz, 5.7255.875
GHz

Plane Waves
Waves radiated by an EM source, such as an antenna,
have spherical wavefronts as in (a);
to a distant observer, however, the wavefront across the observers
aperture appears approximately planar as in (b).
Uniform Plane Waves
The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other
and both are perpendicular to direction of propagation.

These directional properties characterize a transverse
electromagnetic wave.

A transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave
0
2 2
( , ) cos
x
t z
E z t E
T
t t
|
| |
= +
|
\ .
0
2 2
( , ) cos
y
t z
H z t H
T
t t
|
| |
= +
|
\ .
0 0 0
E H H
q
c
= =
0
377 q ~ In free space:
Uniform Plane Waves
Spatial variations of E and H.
Wave Polarization
The polarization of a uniform plane wave describes the shape and
locus of the tip of the E vector at a given point in space as a
function of time.
In the most general case, the wave is elliptically polarized
In certain conditions, the ellipse may turn to a circle or a straight
line
Circular polarization
Linear polarization
A wave with x- and y- components
( ) ( ) ( )
x y
E z xE z yE z = +
(46)
0 0
( ) , ( )
jkz jkz
x x y y
E z E e E z E e

= =
(47)
Linear Polarization
Linearly polarized wave traveling in the +z-direction.
Right-Hand Circular (RHC) Polarization
Right-hand circularly polarized wave radiated by a helical antenna.
Circular Polarization
Polarization handedness is defined in terms of rotation of E as a
function of time in a fixed plane orthogonal to the direction of
propagation
Circularly polarized plane waves propagating in the +z-direction
Polarization
The polarization is random when there is no fixed polarization or
pattern of polarization variation
an effect present in light waves emitted from an incandescent source (e.g.,
the sun or an electric light bulb).

It is seldom observed in man made radio emissions.

Such would result if two independently random sources of radio noise
are connected to right-angle-polarized elements of a single antenna.
E.g. used in radio and radar military countermeasures, or jamming

Linear polarization is the most commonly employed by far.

One application for circular polarization is in communications between
earth and space, to mitigate the effects of polarization rotation caused
by the ionosphere
Spherical Waves and the Inverse-Square Law
An electromagnetic wave represents a flow of energy in the direction of
propagation.
The power density of the wave:
The rate at which energy flows through a unit area of surface in space
Energy per unit time per unit of area: watts per square meter.

The average power density of the wave is the time average value of S

2
( / ) ( ) the poynting ve S E H m r W cto =
* 2
1
Re ( / )
2
av
S E H W m ( =

, : instantaneousfields
, : phasor fields
E H
E H
Spherical Waves and the Inverse-Square Law
Isotropic radiator:
The source radiates power at a constant rate uniformly in all
directions,

The total power flowing through any spherical surface centered at the
source will be uniformly distributed over the surface and must equal the
total power radiated.

2
4
t
R
P
S
R t
=
P
t
= total power
S
R
= power density at a distance R
R
R
S
The Inverse-Square Law
A
R
B
R
2 2
,
4 4
A B
t t
R R
A B
P P
S S
R R t t
= =
2
A
B
R
B
R A
S
R
S R
| |
=
|
\ .
The power density is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance from the source.
However, this is true only within the far field
of an antenna,
because an antenna is of finite size and
therefore it is not located solely at a
point.

The far field exists beyond a minimum
separation distance of an antenna, which
depends on antenna dimensions and
wavelength.
A
R
S
B
R
S
Decibel (Logarithmic) Expression of Attenuation
Wave attenuation is expressed also in terms of the logarithms of
the power-density or electric-intensity ratios,
an alternative method widely used in describing signal amplification
or attenuation in telephone and radio systems.

| |
1
1 1
2 2 2
10log 10log 20log ( )
E
P P
G G dB G dB
P P E
| |
| |
= = =
|
|
\ .
\ .
Attenuation due to the spherical spreading
of the wavethat is, as expressed by the
inverse-square lawis sometimes called
the space attenuation of the wave.
Absorption
There may sometimes be attenuation due to absorption of power by the
propagation medium.

This does not occur in a vacuum, but it will occur in a medium that
contains material particles that interact with the waves.

At some frequencies, for example, certain gases of the earths
atmosphere (oxygen and water vapor) cause absorption. This occurs
slightly in the VHF region and becomes significant over long
transmission paths in the UHF region and above.

Unlike space attenuation, attenuation due to absorption does not
depend on the distance from the source but only on the total distance
traveled by the wave.
Absorption
Certain materials are capable of absorbing radio waves very
strongly.
Waves traveling in these materials will be attenuated greatly within
a short distance, of the order of centimeters or meters.

Sometimes such materials are used in antenna design to
suppress radiation in undesired directions, or to prevent
leakage of waves from one part of an antenna to another
where they would have an undesirable effect.

An anechoic chamber
Absorption
If a wave propagates in a homogeneous absorbing medium (i.e. x-
direction),
its amplitude will decrease as , where e = 2.71828

Thus, if a wave of amplitude E
1
travels a distance x of 1m and o is 1
Np/m, its new amplitude E
2
is E
1
e
1
.

Then, the attenuation in decibels is 20 log (E
1
/E
2
) = 8.686, and thus an
attenuation of 1 Np/m equals 8.868 dB/m.
x
e
o
: attenuationfactor
x
e
o
: attenuationconstant (Np/m) o
=8.686
dB Np
A A
9/13/2013 Prepared by Dr. Veysel Demir, EE, NIU 28 Prepared by Dr. Veysel Demir, EE, NIU
How antennas radiate
Electromagnetic news propagate with speed of light
An isolated charge induces an electric field at every point
in space.

This field is called the Coulombian field
: permittivity of
the medium
: radiusof circle, :speedof light, : time r c t
r ct =
Radiation from a charge
If the charge is moving with a constant speed, the fields move
together with the charge
If the charge is accelerated, then the charge produces a
disturbance of the fields.
This disturbance propagates and this propagation is called
radiation.
Direction of movement
Charge moves with constant velocity
until reaching A
Charge is accelerated between A
and B for seconds
Field lines after t seconds shall be
continuous
t A
Field lines generated by the
charge when it was at A, and
observed after t seconds
Field lines generated by the
charge when it was at B, and
observed after seconds
t t A
A B
Radiation from a charge
A charge moving with constant speed creates a disturbance of
fields in space
But this disturbance is not radiation
It does not emit power

An accelerated charge will create a disturbance
This disturbance carries power radiated from the charge
Acceleration of charge is the source of radiation

Radiation is maximum in the direction perpendicular to the
direction of movement
v
Radiation
An accelerated charge will create radiation

Time-varying current will create radiation

Why dont we observe radiation from an AC circuit?

( )
( )
dQ t
I t
dt
=
( ) I t
( ) E t
( ) E t
Radiation from a transmission line
I
I
Radiation
( ) E t
If the distance between the wires is small (compared with the
wavelength) the radiated fields from the wires will cancel each other.

Consequently, radiation is negligible, and is neglected in low-frequency
a-c circuit theory.

At high frequencies, wavelength is shorter
If the wavelength is comparable with the distance, then there will be
radiation.

Radiation
For radiation to occur, the conductor carrying the
current must be reasonably in the clear,
that is, not enclosed by obstacles that are impenetrable to
electromagnetic waves.

Radiation may be prevented, when desired, by
placing circuits inside closed metallic enclosures; this
is the principle of shielding.
Radiation from a transmission line
An open ended transmission line:
Since the end is open, we will observe
standing waves of voltage and current
on the transmission line
magnitude of
current (standing
wave pattern)
current
+
charges
+
E fields from
top wire
E fields from
bottom wire
H fields from
top wire
H fields from
bottom wire
Although the charges are oscillating
(accelerating) sinusoidally, this
structure does not radiate
The radiation from the two wires
cancel each other
What happens if we bend the ends
+
+
Direction of
maximum radiation
The fields generated by the arms
add up and radiate
9/13/2013 Prepared by Dr. Veysel Demir, EE, NIU 37 9/13/2013
Antenna Parameters
The ideal antenna is one that will
radiate all the power delivered to it by a transmission
line
in the desired direction or directions
and with the desired polarization.

Practical antennas can never fully achieve this
ideal performance

Their merit is conveniently described in terms of
the degree to which they do so.
Antenna Parameters
The principal parameters of antennas are
radiation pattern
radiation efficiency
input impedance
bandwidth

Other parameters defined under each of these categories
gain
beamwidth
beam polarization
minor lobe level,
radiation efficiency,
aperture efficiency,
effective area,
radiation resistance,
various bandwidths,

Some of these parameters are interrelated or correlated.
Antenna structures - Size
There is a general proportionality between
antenna size
and the wavelength at the frequency of operation,
but this relationship is not hard and fast.

Large antennas are sometimes used at short wavelengths (high
frequencies) to obtain a highly directional radiation pattern
(beam) and high gain in a preferred direction.

At long wavelengths (low frequencies) very small antennas may
be used for reception when efficiency is not important.
An antenna appreciably less than a half wavelength is termed
electrically small.
Even a physically large antenna may be electrically small at very
low frequencies.

Antenna structures - Feed Lines
Part of antenna design:
The design of a feed line (transmission line)
any necessary impedance-matching devices
power-dividing devices

Transmission lines:
Wavegides
Coaxial cables
Two-wire lines
Microstrip lines
Stripline lines
Coplanar waveguides

The line connects to the antenna at its input terminals
or input port.
Antenna structures Conductors and isolators
Metals of high conductivity, such as copper and
aluminum (and its alloys), are naturally preferred.

The conducting portions of an antenna not only carry
rf currents but also have rf voltages between their
different parts and between the conductors and
ground.

To avoid short circuiting these voltage, insulators
must sometimes be used between the antenna and
its supports, or between different parts of the
antenna.

Antenna structures Weather protection
Since antennas are ordinarily outdoors, they must
withstand wind, rain, ice and snow, lightning, and
sometimes corrosive gases or salt-laden air.

Sometimes an antenna (such as a rotating
paraboloidal reflector or lens) is totally enclosed in a
protective housing of low-loss insulating material that
is practically transparent to the electromagnetic
radiation.

Such a housing is called a radome.
Radiation Pattern
If an antenna is imagined to be located at the center of
a spherical coordinate system,
its radiation pattern is determined by measuring the electric field
intensity over the surface of a sphere at some fixed distance, r.
A pattern that represents field strength as a function of
angular direction at a fixed distance from the antenna is
identical to a plot of distance for a constant field
strength.
Since the field E is then a function of the two variable u
and |, it is written E(u,|) in functional notation.
( )

, sin
4
j R
I z e
E j
R
|
u | e uu
t

A
=
Example
Radiation Pattern
The power density of the field, p (u,|), can also be computed
when E(u,|) is known

A plot in terms of p(u,|) conveys the same information as a plot
of the magnitude of E(u,|).

The phase pattern
In some circumstances, the phase of the field is of interest, and a
plot may be made of the phase angle of E(u,|) as well as its
magnitude;

Ordinarily antenna pattern implies only the magnitude of E or p.

The polarization pattern
Sometimes the polarization properties of E may also be plotted.
2
377 p E =
Patterns in a plane
Principal planes of the coordinate system
xy-plane: u = 90
o,
|=0
o
-360
o
xz-plane: u = 0
o
-180
o,
|=0
o

yz-plane: u = 0
o
-180
o,
|=90
o

Patterns in a plane
xy-plane
xz-plane
yz-plane
Polar plot vs rectangular coordinate plot
Rectangular coordinate plot
distorts the appearance of
the pattern geometrically
but preserves the
interpretability of an angle
representation and makes
the plotting and reading of
the low-amplitude portions
of the pattern easier.
E-plane and H-plane
When the radiation of an antenna is polarized so that the E-
vector lies in a plane (usually one of the principal planes), the
pattern in this plane is sometimes referred to as the E-plane
pattern;
and the pattern in the plane perpendicular to it, in which the H-
vector lies, is called the H-plane pattern.
sin
4
j R
I z e
H j
R
|
| u|
t

A
=
sin
4
j R
I z e
E j
R
|
e uu
t

A
=
Example
E-plane
H-plane
3D view
Absolute and relative patterns
Absolute pattern: if radiation pattern is plotted in
terms of
the electric field strength in volts per meter
or the power density in watts per square meter.

Relative pattern: Often, the pattern is plotted in
relative terms, that is, the field strength or power
density is represented in terms of its ratio to some
reference value.
The reference usually chosen is the field level in the
maximum-field-strength direction.
( , )
( , ) ( , )
(max)
rel
E
F E
E
u |
u | u | = =
( , )
( , ) ( , )
(max)
rel
S
P S
S
u |
u | u | = =
normalized field pattern
power pattern
Example
For an element of current (ideal dipole):
sin
4
j R
I z e
E j
R
|
u
e u
t

A
=
2
(max)
4
j R
I z e
E j
R
|
t
u
u
e
t

=
A
=
( , ) ( , ) sin
rel
F E u | u | u = =
Decibel scale
It is fairly common to express the relative field
strength F or power density P in decibels.
The value at the maximum of the pattern is
therefore zero decibels,
and at other angles the decibel values are
negative (since the logarithm of a fractional
number is negative
( ) ( )
10 10
10log ( , ) 20log ( , ) P F u | u | =
2
( , ) ( , ) P F u | u | =
9/13/2013 Prepared by Dr. Veysel Demir, EE, NIU 52 9/13/2013 Prepared by Dr. Veysel Demir, EE, NIU
52
Power pattern
A normalized power pattern for a uniform line source
polar linear scale
polar dB scale
rectangular dB scale rectangular linear scale
Near-field and far-field
Antenna radiation patterns are graphical
representations of the radiation in the far-field of the
antenna.
The far-field region is where the angular field
distribution is essentially independent of the distance
from the antenna.
The minimum permissible distance, for a far-field
measurement, depends on the dimensions of the
antenna in relation to the wavelength.
The distance from the antenna where the far-field begins:
2
2
ff
D
r
=
D: maximum dimension of antenna
Farfield conditions
2
2D
r
r D
r
>
Farfield conditions
3
2
3
2
0 0.62
2
0.62
2
D
D
D
D

r: Distance from antenna
Reactive near field
Radiating near field
Far field
The near-field region is further subdivided between
the reactive near-field and radiating near-field
regions.
However, the total field present is actually the vector
sum of the reactive and radiating fields..
The Ideal Dipole Near and farfields
Hertzian electric dipole, infinitesimal dipole, elemental dipole
x
y
z
I
Assumptions:
The line is electrically very short
The current I is uniform on the line
( ) ( )
0
sin 2 I t I ft t o = +
See Section 2.3 in the text book
Magnetic field:
1

1 sin
4
j r
I z e
H j
j r r
|
| u|
t |

| | A
= +
|
\ .
| e c =
Example: The Ideal (elemental or Hertzian) Dipole
Electric field: ( )
1
E H
jec
= V
Farfield term
Near-field terms
2 2 3 2 2
sin cos
4 2
j r j r j r j r j r
I z e e e I z e e
E j j r
r j r r r r
| | | | |
e uu q u
t | | t |

| | | | A A
= + +
| |
\ . \ .
Farfields
If
sin
4
j r
I z e
H j
r
|
| u|
t

A
=
sin
4
j r
I z e
E j
r
|
e uu
t

A
=
1 r |
Farfield terms
sin
4
sin
4
j r
j r
I z e
j
E
r
I z e H
j
r
|
u
|
|
e u
e e
t
q
| c
e c
| u
t
A
= = = = =
A
Intrinsic
impedance
Farfield Power Density
( )
2
1

sin sin
2 4 4
sin

2 4
j r j r
I z e I z e
S E H j j
r r
I z
r
r
| |
e u | u u |
t t
e| u
t
+
-
| || | A A
= =
| |
\ .\ .
A
| |
=
|
\ .
{ }
2
sin

2 4
I z
real S real r
R
e| u
t

A
| |
=
`
|
\ .

)
Real power density propagating:
Farfield Power Density
Total power flowing out through a sphere with radius R
( )
( )
2
2
2
0 0
2
sin
sin
2 4
12
r
I z
P S ds r rr d d
r
I z
u t | t
u |
e| u
u u |
t
e|
t
= =
= =
(
A
| |
= =
(
|
\ .
(

= A
}} } }
Radiated power
The Nearfields of Ideal Dipole
Magnetic field:
2

sin
4
j r
nf
I ze
H
r
|
u|
t

A
=
Electric field:
3 3
sin cos
4 2
j r j r
nf
I z e I z e
E j j r
r r
| |
q uu q u
t| t|

A A
=
If
1 R |
( )
2
2
5
1 1

2 2
1

sin sin
2 4
nf nf nf nf nf nf nf
R
S E H E H r E H
j I z
r
r
u | |
u
q
u uu
| t
- - -
(
= =

A
| |
=
|
\ .
Poynting vector:
Imaginary: so this is not real power
Example
Radiation Pattern of a Uniform Line Source
For a uniform line source:
( ) ( )
( )
0
sin cos / 2
sin
4 cos / 2
j R
L
j I Le
E
R L
|
u
| u
e
u
t | u
=
0
2
(max)
4
j R
j I Le
E
R
|
t
u
u
e
t

=
=
( ) ( )
( )
sin cos / 2
( , ) sin
cos / 2
L
F
L
| u
u | u
| u
=
( , ) sin F u | u =
Element factor pattern factor
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) F g f u | u | u | =
A normalized field pattern can be written as product of
element factor and pattern factor
element
factor
pattern
factor
For a uniform line source:
( ) ( )
( )
sin / 2 cos
( , ) sin
/ 2 cos
L
F
L
| u
u | u
| u
=
element
factor
pattern
factor
Ideal
dipole
A line source can be
considered as a combination
of Ideal dipoles
Line
source
64
Radiation pattern parameters
Major lobe, main lobe, main beam: The radiation lobe
containing the direction of maximum radiation.
Minor lobe: any lobe other than the main lobe.
Side lobes
Back lobes: directly opposite to the main lobe
Beamwidth
When the radiated power of an antenna is
concentrated into a single major lobe, the angular
width of this lobe is the beamwidth.
Some antennas have a pattern consisting of many
lobes.
Generally a narrower beam implies a greater gain.
Beam may have different widths in different planes
through the beam axis
Therefore it is customary to give the widths of the beam in
two planes at right angles, usually the principal planes of the
coordinate system.
66
Half power beam width (HP) : Angular separation of the
points where the main beam of the power pattern equals
one-half the maximum value.
, , HP left HP right
HP u u =
For an element of current (ideal dipole): ( , ) sin
rel
E u | u =
1
sin 45 , 135 135 45 90
2
o o o o o
HP u u u = = = = =
2 1
HP | | =
67
Side lobe level (SLL) : A measure how well the power is
concentrated into the main beam.
( )
pattern valueof sidelobepeak
pattern valueof themainlobe (max)
E SLL
SLL
E
= =
10
0.39
20log ( ) 8.2
dB
SLL
SLL SLL dB
=
= =
9/13/2013 Prepared by Dr. Veysel Demir, EE, NIU 68 68
Broadside: The main beam is in a direction normal to the
plane containing the antenna

Endfire: Main beam is in the plane containing the antenna

Fan beam
Pencil beam
Radiation Resistance and Efficiency
In a large class of antennas the radiation is associated with a flow of
RF current in a conductor or conductors.

Thus, when a current I flows in a resistance R, an amount of power P
= RI
2
will be dissipated and converted into heat.

In general, the input impedance of an antenna is complex.

Resistive part is the sum of radiation resistance and loss
in
Z
( ) in radiation loss ohmic
Z R R jX = + +
For most antennas
Ohmic loss is significant for electrically small antennas
ohmic radiation
R R
Antenna Impedance
The input impedance of an antenna at its terminals:

The power that leaves the antenna and never returns (radiation)
Ohmic losses associated with heating
A A A
Z R jX = +
in radiation ohmic
R R R = +
radiation
R
ohmic
R
A
X
: power stored in the near field
The input impedance of antenna is the same when receiving and
transmitting (reciprocity)
Input impedance is affected by the other antennas around
Antenna Impedance
Average power dissipated in the antenna

2 1
2
in A A
P R I =
A
I
: current at the antenna terminal
2 2 1 1
2 2
in ohmic rad A ohmic A
P P P R I R I = + = +
2
2
rad
rad
A
P
R
I
=
( )
2
12
rad
P I z
e|
t
= A
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2 2
12
2
2
2 2
2 2
2
6 6
2 1 2 2
2 2
6 6 3
I z
rad
rad
I
A
p
P
R z f z
I
u
z
z z
e|
t
e| t
t
t t
t t qt
t t
t t
c
A
= = = A = A
A
| |
= A = A =
|
\ .
2
2
80 ( )
rad
z
R t
A
| |
= O
|
\ .
For an ideal dipole the radiation
resistance is very small
Antenna Impedance
Radiation efficiency
rad rad rad rad
r
in ohmic rad rad ohmic in
P P R R
k
P P P R R R
= = = =
+ +
Ohmic resistance of wire antenna
At high frequencies the skin depth is :
2 o eo =
Surface resistance :
2
s
R
e
o
=
Ohmic resistance of wire antenna with uniform current:
, : wire radius, : length
2
ohmic s
L
R R a L
a t
=
Bandwidth
All antennas are limited in the range of frequency over which
they will operate satisfactorily.

This frequency range, whatever it may be, is called the
bandwidth of the antenna.

Some antennas are required to operate only at a fixed
frequency with a signal that is narrow in its bandwidth;
consequently there is no bandwidth problem in designing such an
antenna.

But in other applications much greater bandwidths may be
required;
in such cases special techniques are needed.

Bandwidth
Bandwidth as a percent of the center frequency

Bandwidth as a ratio

Antenna pattern: pattern bandwidth
The beamwidth, gain, sidelobe level, beam direction, and
polarization are parameters associated with the pattern
bandwidth

Input impedance: impedance bandwidth
input impedance, radiation resistance, and efficiency are
associated with the impedance bandwidth.

100%
U L
P
C
f f
B
f
=
U
r
L
f
B
f
=
Bandwidth
Return loss of an antenna
6.98 5.7
100% %20
6.34
P
B

= =
6.98
1.225
5.7
r
B = =
Directivity and Gain
Isotropic radiator:
The source radiates power at a constant rate uniformly in all
directions,

The total power flowing through any spherical surface centered at the
source will be uniformly distributed over the surface and must equal the
total power radiated.

2
4
t
R
P
S
R t
=
P
t
= total power
S
R
= power density at a distance R
R
R
p
Actually an isotropic radiator is not physically realizable;
All actual antennas have some degree of nonuniformity
in their radiation patterns.
A nonisotropic antenna will radiate more power in some
directions than in others and therefore has a directional
pattern.
Solid angle
Solid angle is the angle that, seen from the center of a sphere,
includes a given area on the surface of the sphere.

The value of the solid angle is numerically equal to the size of
that area divided by the square the radius of the sphere.

Mathematically the solid angle is unitless, but for practical
reasons the steradian (s.r.) is assigned so that
1 steradian = 1 radian
2
.
2
2
0 0
2
2 2
0 0
sin
4
sphere
Area dA r d d
r d r
t t
| u
t t
| u
u u |
t
= =
= =
= =
= O =
} } }
} }
2 2
sin
4
4
d d d
r d r
u u |
t
t
O =
O =
O =
}
dO
Element of solid angle
Radiation intensity
Total power radiated by an antenna can be
calculated as

Radiation intensity is a range-independent quantity

Total radiated power equals the sum of all radiation
intensity that encloses the antenna.
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2
0 0 0 0
, , sin , ,
t
P r dA S r r d d S r r d
t t t t
| u | u
u | u u | u |
= = = =
= = = O
} } } } }
( ) ( )
2
, , , U S r r u | u | =
( ) ( )
2 2
0 0 0 0
, sin ,
t
P U d d U d
t t t t
| u | u
u | u u | u |
= = = =
= = O
} } } }
Directivity
(Maximum) Directivity D is a quantitative measure of an
antennas ability to concentrate energy in a certain direction.
Specifically, D is the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity
U
max
to the average radiation intensity U
av
.

Directivity: (directive gain) the ratio of the radiation intensity in a
certain direction to the average radiation intensity
max
ave
U
D
U
=
( , )
( , )
ave
U
D
U
u |
u | =
Directivity as a function of direction
( , ) D u |
Maximum directivity
D
Directivity
If the radiation is isotropic, the radiation intensity in every
direction is U
av
.

Directivity:

Directivity is calculated by integrating relative values of an
antennas radiation pattern,
and this does not require knowledge of an absolute value

2
4
t
isotropic
P
S
R t
=
2
2
4
t
ave
P
U r
r t
=
4
t ave
P U t =
( )
( )
max max max
2
2
0 0
0 0
max
4 4 4
,
,
sin
ave t
U U U
D
U P U
U d
d d
U
t t
t t
| u
| u
t t t
u |
u |
u u |
= =
= =
= = = =
(
O
(

} }
} }
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
max
max max
, , , , ,
,
, , , ,
U S r E r
F
U S r E r
u | u | u |
u |
u | u |
= = =
Beam solid angle: is the solid angle through which all the
power would be radiated if the radiation intensity equaled the
maximum over the beam area.
Directivity
( )
2
0 0
max
4 4
,
sin
A
D
U
d d
U
t t
| u
t t
u |
u u |
= =
= =
O (
(

} }
max t A
P U = O
A
O
( )
2
0 0
max
,
sin
A
U
d d
U
t t
| u
u |
u u |
= =
(
O =
(

} }
A
O
Gain
Gain: (power gain)
The directivity is based on the radiated power, P
r
.
The gain is based on the input power to the antenna, P
i
.
The gain therefore accounts for the efficiency of the antenna as
well
max max max
4
/ 4
ave r r
U U U
D
U P P
t
t
= = =
max
4
in
U
G
P
t
=
Radiation efficiency
r
in
P
k
P
=
G kD =
( ) ( )
, , G kD u | u | =
Gain as a function of direction
( , ) G u |
Maximum gain
G
Directivity and Gain in Decibels
Directivity

Gain

Relative Gain: Frequently gain is used to describe the
performance of an antenna relative to some standard
reference antenna

( )
10
10log
dB
D D =
( )
10
10log
dB
G G =
max
max,ref
U
G
U
=
Gain relative to a half-wave dipole: dBd
Gain relative to an isotropic antenna: dBi
Gain of half-wave dipole is given as 2.15 dBi
Gain of an X antenna is given as 6.1 dBi
The gain of the X antenna relative to half-
wave dipole:
Gd=6.1-2.15 = 3.95 dBd
The pattern expression for an omni-directional antenna is given as:
1 2
1,
( , )
3 3
0,
rel
E
otherwise
t u t
u |

< <
Find the beam solid angle and maximum directivity D.

A
O
( )
2
2
2
2
3
0
3
2
3
3
( , ) 1 sin
2 cos 2
A rel
E d d d
t
t
t
|
u
t
t
u | u u |
t u t
=
=
O = O =
= =
}} } }
4 4
2
2
A
D
t t
t
= = =
O
( , )
rel
E u |
Example
max t A
P U = O
max
4
r
U
D
P
t
=
Determine the electric field intensity at a distance of 10 km from an antenna (in the
direction of maximum radiation) having maximum directivity 5 dB and radiating a
total power 20 KW.
0.5
10
5 10log ( ) 10 3.162 D D = = =
max max max
4
/ 4
ave
U U U
D
U P P
t
t
= = =
max
4
DP
U
t
=
2
max max
U S r =
max
2
4
DP
S
r t
=
( )
-5
max
2
3.162 20000
5.032479 10
4 10000
S
t

= =
( )
2
max max max
1
0.1948 /
2
S E E V m
q
= =
Example
86
The radiation intensity of an antenna is given as
3
2sin sin , 0 , 0 ,
( , )
0,
U
otherwise
u | u t | t
u |
< < < <
=

Find the directivity D.

max
ave
U
D
U
=
max
2 U =
1
( , )
4
ave
U U d u |
t
= O
}}
( )
( )
3
0 0
2 3 3 2
0 0 0 0
1
( , ) 2sin sin sin
4
1 1
sin sin sin sin
2 2
1
3
ave
U U d d d
d d d d
t t
| u
t t t t
| u | u
u | u | u u |
t
u | u | | | u u
t t
= =
= = = =
= O =
= =
=
}} } }
} } } }
max
2
6
1
3
ave
U
D
U
= = =
( , ) E u |
Example

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Antenna Theory and Design Slides 1

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ANTENNA THEORY AND DESIGN

Find the beam solid angle and maximum directivity D.

Find the directivity D.

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