CONTROL CHARTS

&

CONTROL LIMITS

# CAUSES OF VARITION OF MEASUREMENTS

Variation in measurement (quality) can be caused in two ways, i) Assignable Causes (causes for variation which can be identified) ii) Natural (not under control) or Chance or Random Causes.

ASSIGNABLE CAUSES OF VARITION

Basic Nature :
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) For Assignable Causes the variations are generally greater in magnitude (in comparison to Natural Causes) The variations do not follow Normal Statistics. Assignable Causes of variation are generally easily traceable & identifiable The Assignable causes & variations are not inevitable. Assignable Causes of variation normally can be removed / rectified / eliminated. If Assignable Causes are not rectified, the process becomes Out of Control.

6)

CAUSES OF VARITION

Basic Assignable Causes :

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Faulty process Quality of raw materials and/or components, Wear & Tear of the machine and equipment Operating Condition of machine and equipment, like vibration, leveling defect, defective centering, non-alignment, etc Wrong setting up of machine (cutting speed, depth of cut, etc) Improper Maintenance Wrong tools Improper fixing / fitting of tools Faulty jigs and fixtures Use of uncalibrated or poorly calibrated instrument, gauges, etc. Operating Condition of Instrumentation & Control Faulty Environmental Condition of working place (improper lighting & ventilation, dust, smoke, temperature variation, toxic or corrosive atmosphere, humidity, etc), Inadequate Skill of operators, Mental condition / Mood of operators, Carelessness and mistake on the part of operators,

13. 14. 15.

Natural or Chance or Random Causes

OF VARITION
Basic Nature :
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Such causes are inherent in the process and thus are INEVITABLE, The variations in measurement are generally smaller in magnitude Such causes are non-rectifiable in nature (very difficult to rectify even under best care & conditions) The causes are unpredictable and very difficult to identify & trace Variations due to such causes follow Statistical Rules and Normal Curve (chance factor ie Probability is involved). With this type of variations, the process is said to be UNDERCONTROL. [If the variations do not follow Normal Curve, there must be some Assignable Causes which can be detected and rectified.]

Control Chart for VARIABLES (Quality Characteristics)

Let, Variables (individual measurements/observations) = Xi , (where i = 1 to n),

Sample Size for each sub-group (sample) = n,

No. of Samples / Sub-group (lot) = N. _ Sample Average (Sample Mean), Xmean, X = ( Xi ) n where i = 1 to n = Process Average (Process Mean), X = ( Xk ) N where k = 1 to N where k = 1 to N where k = 1 to N

Range (in each sample),

Rk = ( X max Xmin) R = ( Rk ) N

Mean Range (of the Process),

Standard Deviation (in each Sample), Sk = [ ( Xi Xmean)2 (n-1) ]

_

Mean Standard Deviation for process, S = ( Sk) N

Standard Deviation of POPULATION, = R d2

where k = 1 to N

_ = S C2 d2 > C2 ]

[Since, R > S

always,

 X Chart
Central Line (CL) Upper Control Limit (UCL) Lower Control Limit (LCL) = X = X + A2.R = X A2.R

R-Chart
R _ D4 . R _ D3 . R

_ X
LCL UCL

R
= X

UCL

LCL

_ R

N _ X - Chart R - Chart

 X Chart
Central Line (CL)
Upper Control Limit (UCL)

S-Chart
= X S
_ B4 . S _ B3 . S

= X + A3.S = X A3.S

_ X

Lower Control Limit (LCL)

S
UCL

= X

UCL

LCL

LCL

_ S

N _ X - Chart S - Chart

_ X Chart and R-Chart Central Line (CL) Upper Control Limit (UCL) Lower Control Limit (LCL)

_ X Chart = X = = X + A2.R X A2.R

R-Chart _ R _ D4 . R _ D3 . R S-Chart = X _ S _ B4 . S _ B3 . S

_ X Chart and S-Chart Central Line (CL) Upper Control Limit (UCL) Lower Control Limit (LCL)

_ X Chart

= =

X + A3.S X A3.S

X S charts are preferably applicable over X R chart,

(1) Sample size, n > 10,

when

(2) Tight control of Process Variability is needed, and (3) Sample size n varies.

Values of Statistical Constants

Sample Size (n)

A2
1.88 1.02 0.73 0.58 0.48 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.31 0 0 0 0 0

D3

D4
3.27 2.57 2.28 2.11 2.00 1.92 1.86 1.82 1.78

A3
2.66 1.95 1.63 1.43 1.29 1.18 1.10 1.03 0.98 0 0 0 0

B3

B4
3.27 2.57 2.27 2.09 1.97 1.88 1.81 1.76 1.72

d2
1.128 1.693 2.059 2.326 2.534 2.704 2.847 2.970 3.078

c2
0.7979 0.8862 0.9213 0.9400 0.9515 0.9594 0.9650 0.9693 0.9727

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0.03 0.12 0.19 0.24 0.28

0.08 0.14 0.18 0.22

[Since R >S, A3 > A2 , d2 > c2 ;

and

always D4 & B4 > 1 but

D3 & B3 < 1 ]

A Model of Data Sheet for X R chart ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Department : Specification : Drawing No. : USL = LSL = Part Name. : Sample Size, n = Part No. : Total No. of Sample, N = Machine ID : Operator ID: Inspector : ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sample No. X1 X2 X3 X4 Xn Xmean Range R (= Xi n) (Xmax Xmin) 1. 2. 3. 4. : : N (normally 20 -25) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ======--------------------======= Xmean R = _ X = ( Xmean ) N = R=R N=
CL = UCL = LCL = CL = UCL = LCL =

_ = R / d2

PCR = (USL LSL) 6

A Model of Data Sheet for X S chart ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Department : Specification : Drawing No. : USL = LSL = Part Name. : Sample Size, n = Part No. : Total No. of Sample, N = Machine ID : Operator ID: Inspector : --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sample No. X1 X2 X3 Xn Xi Xmean ( Xi n) (Xi Xmean)2 S
1. 2. 3. 4. : : N (normally 20 -25) ----------------------------------------------------------------==========---------------------------===== Xmean s = X = ( Xmean ) N = CL = UCL = LCL = _ = S / C2

[ S = [ (Xi Xmean)2 ]

(n-1)

S = S N

CL = UCL = LCL =

6=

PCR = (USL LSL) 6

Normal Distribution Curve

Frequency of occurrence
Area under the Curve indicates Population

-3

-2

= X ()
68.28% 95.46% 99.73%

3 Deviation Limits

TOLERANCE
Tolerance is the acceptable / allowed limits of variations of the measurements (dimensions, strength, properties, finish, etc) of the items of the lot. Tolerance Limits are the maximum variations of the measurement those can be acceptable / allowed, above (Upper Control Limit) or below (Lower Control Limit) the corresponding specified measurement. Example : + 0.2 + 0.8 +10 Diameter 455 mm, Cr content 14 %, Strength 540 kg/cm2 0.3 0. 5 0 Tolerance may be : (i) Natural Tolerance and/or (ii) Specified Tolerance

Natural Tolerance : If the process is Under Control (ie the variations are small and follow statistical laws), the Upper Control Level (UCL) and the Lower Control Limit (LCL) together indicate the Natural Tolerance. Gap between Natural Tolerance Limits UNTL & LNTL (ie 6 ) is BAND. Specified Tolerance : The tolerance limits (U & L) predefined or specified by the designer or the user of the product (depending on the quality needed to fit it in its use) is termed as Specified Tolerance. Specified Tolerance is not directly related to or dependent on Natural Tolerance ie Natural Control Limits. Specified Tolerance is important and considered in QC of industrial Products. The gap between Specified Tolerance Limits USL & LSL is SPREAD.

SPECIFIED TOLERANCE :
Process Control Limits :

(example : 250 +3 4 )

USL = Upper specified Limit (here 253) LSL = Lower specified Limit (here 246)
(USL LSL) = SPECIFIED SPREAD or simply SPREAD (S) (here 253 246 = 7) CENTER LINE of Specified Spread = (USL + LSL) / 2 (here 249.5)

NATURAL TOLERANCE :

= Process Central Line = X =

Upper Natural Tolerance Limit =

UNTL = + 3

Lower Natural Tolerance Limit =

LNTL = 3
= 6 (PCR) = Specified Spread. Process Spread

NATURAL / PROCESS SPREAD or simply BAND (B) = (UNTL LNTL)

PROCESS CAPABILITY RATIO

PCR = Specified spread = (USL LSL) = Spread (S) = S Process Spread (UNTL LNTL) Band (B) 6

Process - Capability based on SPREAD and BAND

1) If 6 < S The process is Capable can be easily be kept under control by adjusting = the position of X very near to Centre Line of the Spread (S). Position 2 is shifted and kept
6 = X

USL SC LSL

1 6

at position 1. 2) If 6 = S Strict Centering care to be taken = to keep the Control (Centre) Line X perfectly at the Centre Line of Spread. It is also better to relax the Specified Tolerance to make S> 6 . Position 2 is shifted and kept at position 1. The Process is marginally Capable. 3) If 6 > S

USL
1

6
= X 6

SC

LSL

Even with Extreme care & control and Perfect Centering, the process is not Capable. The Process is said to be Out of Control. Quality non-conformance will be there and there by Quality Rejection Will take place. Care to be taken : (1) Fundamental change in process, (2) Revision of Specified Tolerance, (3) Perfect Centering, (4) 100% inspection