Research Design

Once the research problem is identified, clearly stated, theoretical framework built and the hypothesis explicated, the variables defined, there is a need to construct a proper research design. These are the basic requirements which the researcher must have in hand before planning any research activity. Research design is a plan of action; a conceptual structure within which a research is conducted. Definition: a research design is the arrangements of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that it aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy.

Research Design

Need for research design: When we are constructing a house, we need a blue print (map) of the house so that the house is constructed with attractive look, and with proper expenditure of the money. The same is the case with a research design. It is a blue-print, which facilitates the various operations of research in an efficient and economic way. Research design stands for advanced planning of the methods to be adopted for conducting research keeping in view the objectives of the research & available time & resources.

Research Design

Research Design is a plan, structure, and strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to RQs or Hypothesis. It is a complete scheme of the research It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypothesis and their operational implications to the final analysis of data.

Research Design
Components of a research design
A research design mainly has the following components: A clear statement of the research problem (Observational design) The population to be studied (sampling design) Procedures and techniques to be used for data collection (operational design) Methods to be used for data processing and analysis (statistical design)

Research Design

Observational: it relates the conditions under which observations are made i.e. a clear statement of the research problem Sampling: Universe, sampling unit, sample size Operational: data sources, tools, time, budget (cost consideration) Statistical: Analytical techniques

Research Design

The following steps in the design must rigidly be followed:

Objectives of the study Data collection methods Selection of sample Data collection (from where and time period) Data analysis Reporting the findings

Research Design
Hypothesis testing studies: also known as experimental studies; Are those in which the researcher tests the hypotheses for casual relationships between the variables. Causal study: where the researcher is interested to find the cause/effects of one or more problems Correlational study: where the researcher is interested to delineate the relationships of two or more variables.

Research Design
Components of a research design

Methodology and Research design: Methodology means the procedure used for research. It may include all steps from selection of the problem to interpretation of the findings Design: Universe of the study: where to conduct Sample selection: who will be the respondents Research Method: which method Data sources Tools for data collection Analytical techniques

Sampling Design

Data refers to a collection of organized information, usually the results of experience, observation or experiment or a set of premises.

This may consist of numbers, words, or images, particularly as measurements or observations of a set of variables.

Sampling Design
Sources of Data: Two main sources:

Primary and Secondary: Primary data:

Sampling Design
Primary Data sources The data that can be freshly obtained from the respondents during the actual field work or through observation Secondary data sources: The data which is gathered from the sources already existing.

Sampling Design
Sources of primary data Four sources;

Individuals, groups, Panels and unobtrusive sources.

Sampling Design

Individuals: Primary data from individuals can be collected in the form of interviews, through questionnaires or through observation. Focus groups: a specific group of people who are experts on the topic on which information are sought is called focus group. A group normally has one moderator and information from the group is collected through discussions on a particular topic. Focus groups are relatively inexpensive and provide data in short time.

Sampling Design

Panels are also group of specific people. The difference between group and panel is that the panel meets more than once and information is recorded from them. Panel studies are conducted in case when the effects of certain interventions or changes are to be studied over a period of time. Static and dynamic panels: Static: same members serve on panel over long period of time Dynamic: panel members change from time to time as various phases of study are in progress.

Sampling Design

Unobtrusive sources: Source which does not involve people. For example: the personal records of employees of a company

Sampling Design

Secondary Source: The data which the researcher does not collect newly but take it from some one other than him is called secondary data. Sources of secondary data: books, journals, government publications, data base, census data, statistical companies etc. Advantages: saving cost and time Disadvantage: obsolete, not exactly according to the needs

Sampling Design

Types of surveys (studies): two types From the research universe, a pre-determined population is selected, from which information and data is to be collected. If we take the whole population for data collection, is called census inquiry. However, if the population is large, then we take some portion (respondents, elements, items) of the whole population which is called sample. The process is called sampling technique and the survey is called sampling survey.

Sampling Design
Sample design:

A sample design is a definite plan of obtaining a sample from a given population. Sample design may lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e. the size of the sample.
Sample design is determined before the data is collected.

Sampling Design
Steps in sample design:

Type of universe: the first step in developing a sample design is to clearly define the set of objects to be studied; called universe of study. Universe can be finite and infinite. For example; the employees in an organization; whereas infinite as coca cola drinkers in a region. Sample selection (sampling unit): before selecting the sample size, a sample unit has to be defined. It could be a geographical unit such as a city, district; or a construction unit such as a household; or a social unit such as a family or school; or an individual.

Sampling Design

Sampling frame / population frame: also called as source list: u have universe, sample unit; u need the list of names of all items in the universe. From that list u have to draw your sample. If the source list is not available, the researcher has to make it. Sample size: it refers to the number of items to be studied from the universe. The sample size should neither be too large; nor be too small. It should be optimum. Optimum sample size is that which fulfils the requirements of the efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility. Parameters of interest: Specific parameters of interest must be considered before determining sample design. For example certain characteristics of population which are of your interest. Budgetary constraints: Cost consideration has important impact upon decision relating to sample section.

Sampling Design
Types of sample design:

Two main types of sample design: Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling procedure, the researcher purposively choose the particular units of the universe for constituting the sample on the basis that the small mass that they select of a huge one will be typical or representative of the whole. In this type of sampling, the items are selected deliberately by the researcher

Sampling Design
Types of non-probability sample design:

Convenience sampling: Convenience sampling refers to the collection of information from members of the population who are easily available to the researcher.
Purposive sampling: In this type of sampling, instead of taking respondents easily available, the researcher takes some specific types of people as sample. Purposive sampling may be: Judgement sampling: in this sampling, a specific group who is considered to be in best position to provide some specific information. Quota sampling: in quota sampling a predetermined proportion of the people are sampled from different groups.

Sampling Design

Probability sampling: Under this sampling design; every item of the population has equal chance of inclusion in the sample. Also called as random sampling or chance sampling. The results obtained through probability sampling are considered as more reliable than the non-probability sampling because the element of bias is less included.

Sampling Design
Types of probability sampling:
Simple random sampling or unrestricted sampling: Every element of the population has a known and equal chance of being selected. Also known as unrestricted probability sampling. Advantages: Has least bias and offers most generalizability. Disadvantages: difficult, lengthy and expensive

Sampling Design
Complex random sampling or restricted sampling:

Other than simple random sampling, complex random sampling design is also used. Also called restricted probability design or mixed sampling design. Types of complex random sampling design: Systematic sampling: In some cases, sampling is done in a way that every ith element in the population is included in the sample. This is called systematic sampling. The element of randomization is introduced by picking up the unit form which to start randomly. Systematic sampling is done when list of population is available and is of considerable length.

Sampling Design

Stratified random sampling: If the population from which the sample has to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group, stratified sampling technique is used in order to obtain representative sample. Under stratified sampling, population is divided into several subgroups called strata. Items from each stratum are selected to constitute sampling. For example; if a researcher is interested to study the behaviour of employees in an organization; includes employees from all categories; management, lower management, clerical staff, etc.

proportionate stratified sampling: disproportionate stratified sampling

Sampling Design
Cluster sampling: If the group or population is large and
there exists heterogeneity among the members within each group, then we divide the population into sub-groups called clusters. The sampling from clusters is called cluster sampling. However, this sampling technique is not very common in organizational research. unit; the sampling design is called area sampling design.

Area sampling: If the clusters happen to be a geographic

Multistage sampling: if sampling is once done, information is gathered and further detailed information is required from the sub sample of the same sample; the sampling is called multi-stage sampling. Could be double stage sampling or three-stage sampling design.

Sampling Design

Sources of Data: Normally, there are three methods of data collection: 1. To observe the behaviour of persons, groups or organizations and their outcome 2. To ask questions from the individuals.. Field work primary data (through communication) 3. To utilize the existing record or data already generated for other purposes.. Library research..secondary data

Sampling Design
Data collection methods:

There are different ways used for data collection. The choice of data collection method depends on the available resources, the degree of accuracy required, the expertise of the researcher, the time span of the study, other costs and resources associated with data gathering.
Data is mainly collected through the following methods:

Interview method Questionnaire method Observations

Sampling Design
Observation:

The habit, practice or faculty of seeing and noting; the act of noting and recognizing the phenomena as they occur in nature. The method of collecting information by seeing and noting.

Sampling Design

Types of observational research: Participant observation: if the researcher becomes a part of the working team Non-participant observation: the researcher observes the individuals in the work place without becoming a part of the organizational system.

Sampling Design
Structured observational studies:

if the observer has a predetermined set of categories to be observed; the study is called structured observational study.

Unstructured observational study: if the researcher has no specific ideas of the particular aspects that need focus; the researcher records everything he notices. Such study is called unstructured observational study. Such studies are normally done if qualitative research is aimed.

Sampling Design
Uncontrolled observation:

if the observation takes place in the natural setting; may be termed as uncontrolled observation. controlled observation

But if the observations take place according to pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the observation is called controlled observation.

Sampling Design
Interview methods:

In this method, information is collected from the respondents through interviewing him/her. Interview could be: Unstructured interviews: in this type of interviews, the interviewer does not have a planned set of questions to be asked from the respondents. Unstructured interviews are carried out when some preliminary information gathering is desired. In such interviews normally broad open ended questions are asked. The type and nature of questions asked may vary from individual to individual, depending upon their job position (level) and type of job he is doing. For example: what is your opinion about.. When a number of unstructured interviews are conducted, the researcher gets a fair idea of what variables are important for the in-depth consideration.

Sampling Design

Structured interviews: Structured interviews are conducted when it is known that what specific information is needed. The interviewer has a list of pre-determined questions to be asked from the respondents. The focus is on the factors that were surfaced during the unstructured interviews. The same questions are asked form other people as well. After conducting sufficient number of structured interviews, the information obtained are tabulated and data is analysed

Sampling Design

Forms of interviews

Face to face interviews; Telephonic interviews; Computer assisted interviews; And interviews through electronic media;

Sampling Design

Most of the unstructured interviews are conducted face to face. Structured interviews could either be face to face or through other mediums such as telephone. Telephonic interviews are best suited if the number of respondents is small but distant or if the number of respondents is large and widely scattered or if the duration of the interview is too short.

Sampling Design

Face to face interview: Advantages: as direct, so the researcher can clarify doubts of the respondents, can rephrase the question and can note the non-verbal cues that the respondents produces. Dis-advantage: more expensive and timely

Sampling Design

telephonic interview: Advantages: different people can be interviewed in short time, less costly Dis-advantage: if the interviewee feel dis-comfort, will terminate the call

Sampling Design

2. Questionnaires: Questionnaire is a pre formulated written set of questions to which respondents record their answers. Questionnaire is an effective data collection mechanism if the researcher knows exactly what is required and how to measure the variables of interest. Personally administered: Mail questionnaires:

Sampling Design
Getting data ready for analysis:

After collection, the data has to be analysed in accordance with the outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. But before analysis, the data needs to be processed and made reading for analysis. Data processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of data collected. Data analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of relationship that exists among data groups.

In analysis, the relationship or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypothesis should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to determine with what validity the data can be said to indicate any conclusion.

Sampling Design
Processing Operations:

Processing of data (also called as data testament) includes the following steps: Data sifting: which includes: Editing: when the data is collected, it is called raw data. It is necessary to examine the data so that to detect and correct errors and omissions which may occur during hurry in field. This is called data editing. Editing is done to ensure that the data are accurate, consistent, uniformly entered, and as completed as possible.

Sampling Design

Coding: after editing, the data is being coded. Coding can be defined as the process of classifying responses into meaningful categories. Example: education:

Sampling Design

Classification: also called categorization: to get meaningful relationship, a large volume of the raw data is to be classified into different broad categories. Classification is the system of arranging data in groups or identifiable classes on the basis of common characteristics. For example: male and female; skilled and unskilled

Sampling Design

Tabulation After data treatment, the data is shifted from questionnaires to the data sheets. This can either be done manually or in computers. This is called data entry or data tabulation.

analysis: After data entry; the data is analysed. Mostly we see either causal relations or interrelations. In causal relations, we see that how one variable affects the other. This is done through regression analysis. If we have to see the inter-relation of two variables and their effects; correlation analysis is done.