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SpaceTEC Certification Readiness Course

Tests and Measurements

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Tests and Measurements


Inspection Requirements, Planning, and Preparation Mechanical Inspection methods and tools Electrical/Pressure Measurements Non-Destructive Testing

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Inspection and Quality Control


Inspection - an appraisal activity in which the product is compared to specifications and standards to determine if the product conforms to requirements Assembly line - products are inspected to insure they meet specifications An aircraft or aircraft part - inspected to determine if it meets flight worthiness standards Quality control - The operational techniques and the activities that sustain the quality of a product or service in order to satisfy given requirements. It consists of quality planning, data collection, data analysis, and implementation, and is applicable to all phases of the product life cycle: design, development, manufacturing, delivery and installation, and operation and maintenance
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Frequency of Inspection
Is based on the classification of products characteristics
Critical - bodily harm or loss of the mission (100% inspection) Major - loss of function (sampling inspection) Minor - does not affect fit, form, or function (sampling inspection)

Benefits of planning inspections


Provide consistency between inspectors and inspections Provide knowledge of characteristics and classifications Reduces number of inspections necessary
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Inspection Requirements
A mechanical drawing is required for inspection on an assembly line
Drawing used must have latest revision Must be on display for easy access

Airframe and instrument checks are initially checked visually with a detailed checklist so that nothing is missed
May include mechanical drawings, electrical schematics, illustrated breakdown and assembly drawings for complex assemblies
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Engineering Drawings
Do not try to memorize a drawing Keep only the latest revision of drawing on file To avoid damage, handle drawings carefully and store them properly If there is a question about the drawing, clear it up with supervisor before proceeding Always follow drawing to the letter Never mark on drawing unless you are authorized to do so. If you are authorized, sign and date your markings Make sure you read and understand all notes on a drawing before you begin work
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Engineering Drawings - Notes


General Notes
Are numbered and located at bottom of drawing Apply to several areas of drawing Avoid cluttering the drawing

Local Notes
Apply to one or more particular characteristics Used with a leader line pointing to characteristic Used with triangle flag with number (note at bottom of drawing)

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Engineering Drawing Example

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Engineering Drawings - Change Blocks

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Engineering Drawings - Tabular Dimensions

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Engineering Drawings - Title Block

Note: The Title Block on an Engineering Drawing is located in the lower right hand corner

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Engineering Drawings - Drawing Lines

Object Line
.200

Hidden Line

Center Line

Leader Line Extension Lines


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Dimension Line

Engineering Drawings - Drawing Lines


A

Section Lines

Cutting Plane (or Viewing Plane) Lines

A-A

Break Lines

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Engineering Drawings - Drawing Lines


Phantom Lines
dashes)
Used in four ways:

(one long and two short

1. To show an existing structure needing modification

2. To show alternate positions of an object.

3. To avoid unnecessary detail. 4. To show direction of a unilateral profile tolerance zone in geometric tolerancing

Add box to pole


.01

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Engineering Drawings - Orthographic Projection Views


Views of an object
Top
Top

Rear

Left

Front Right Bottom Rear

Front

Bottom

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Engineering Drawings - Orthographic Projection Views

Orthographic view

Isometric view

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Engineering Drawings - Detail Views


Used when detail feature cannot be seen on original drawing

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Engineering Drawings - Feature Control Frame

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Engineering Drawings - Tolerance Modifiers


Maximum Material Condition (MMC) - The condition of a dimension where the most material allowed by the tolerance is still there. Least Material Condition (LMC) - The condition of a dimension where the least material allowed by the tolerance is there. Regardless of Feature Size (RFS) - The condition of a dimension where the specified tolerance applies regardless of feature size.
RFS applies if neither MMC or LMC is specified.

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MMC vs. LMC

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MMC and LMC Examples


.460 .004
.010 C A B

.8000

1.5000

For a hole:
Hole diameter varies between .456 and .464 At Maximum Material Condition (MMC), the hole measures .456 At Least Material Condition (LMC), the hole measures .464

For a shaft:
Shaft diameter varies between .456 and .464 At Maximum Material Condition (MMC), the shaft measures .464. At Least Material Condition (LMC), the shaft measures .456.

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Hole/Shaft Bonus Tolerance Example


Bonus tolerance an additional tolerance for a geometric control. Whenever a geometric tolerance is applied to a feature of size, and it contains an MMC (or LMC) modifier in the tolerance portion of the feature control frame, a bonus tolerance is permissible

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Applying Tolerance Modifiers


C

The M in the feature control frame means that the tolerance applies only when the hole diameter measures .495 (MMC).

As the hole diameter increases towards its upper limit, additional (bonus) tolerance is allowed. The bonus tolerance is equal to the increase in hole diameter from the Maximum Material Condition (MMC).

Total Tolerance = Tolerance at MMC + Bonus Tolerance


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Applying Tolerance Modifiers


.460 .004
.010 M C A B

.8000
Position tolerance at LMC = .010 + .008 = .018

1.5000

The M in the feature control frame means that the tolerance applies only when the shaft diameter measures .464 (MMC).

As the shaft diameter decreases towards its lower limit, additional (bonus) tolerance is allowed. The bonus tolerance is equal to the increase in hole diameter from the Maximum Material Condition (MMC).

Total Tolerance = Tolerance at MMC + Bonus Tolerance


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Geometric Characteristic Symbols

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Geometric Characteristic Symbols


Straightness - A condition where all points are in a straight line, the tolerance specified by a zone formed by two parallel lines.

Flatness - All the points on a surface are in one plane, the tolerance specified by a zone formed by two parallel planes.

Roundness or Circularity - All the points on a surface are in a circle. The tolerance is specified by a zone bounded by two concentric circles.

Cylindricity - All the points of a surface of revolution are equidistant from a common axis. A cylindricity tolerance specifies a tolerance zone bounded by two concentric cylinders within which the surface must lie.

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Geometric Characteristic Symbols


Profile - A Tolerance method of controlling irregular surfaces, lines, arcs, or normal planes. Profiles can be applied to individual line elements or the entire surface of a part. The profile tolerance specifies a uniform boundary along the true profile within which the elements of the surface must lie. Angularity - The condition of a surface or axis at a specified angle (other than 90?) from a datum plane or axis. The tolerance zone is defined by two parallel planes at the specified basic angle from a datum plane or axis. Perpendicularity - The condition of a surface or axis at a right angle to a datum plane or axis. Perpendicularity tolerance specifies one of the following: a zone defined by two planes perpendicular to a datum plane or axis, or a zone defined by two parallel planes perpendicular to the datum axis.

Parallelism - The condition of a surface or axis equidistant at all points from a datum plane or axis. Parallelism tolerance specifies one of the following: a zone defined by two planes or lines parallel to a datum plane or axis, or a cylindrical tolerance zone whose axis is parallel to a datum axis. www.spacetec.org

Geometric Characteristic Symbols


Concentricity - The axes of all cross sectional elements of a surface of revolution are common to the axis of the datum feature. Concentricity tolerance specifies a cylindrical tolerance zone whose axis coincides with the datum axis.
Position - A positional tolerance defines a zone in which the center axis or center plane is permitted to vary from true (theoretically exact) position. Basic dimensions establish the true position from datum features and between interrelated features. A positional tolerance is the total permissible variation in location of a feature about its exact location. For cylindrical features such as holes and outside diameters, the positional tolerance is generally the diameter of the tolerance zone in which the axis of the feature must lie. For features that are not round, such as slots and tabs, the positional tolerance is the total width of the tolerance zone in which the center plane of the feature must lie.

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Geometric Characteristic Symbols


Circular Run-out - Provides control of circular elements of a surface. The tolerance is applied independently at any circular measuring position as the part is rotated 360 degrees. A circular run-out tolerance applied to surfaces constructed around a datum axis controls cumulative variations of circularity and coaxiality. When applied to surfaces constructed at right angles to the datum axis, it controls circular elements of a plane surface.
Total Run-out - Provides composite control of all surface elements. The tolerance applied simultaneously to circular and longitudinal elements as the part is rotated 360 degrees. Total run-out controls cumulative variation of circularity, cylindricity, straightness, coaxiality, angularity, taper, and profile when it is applied to surfaces constructed around a datum axis. When it is applied to surfaces constructed at right angles to a datum axis, it controls cumulative variations of perpendicularity and flatness.

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Important Dimensioning and Tolerancing Definitions


Datum - a reference point, surface, or axis on an object against which measurements are made. Datum simulator - a surface of adequate precision oriented to the high points of a designated datum from which the simulated datum is established (examples: surface plates, gage pins, ring gage) Interference - refers to the fact that one part slightly interferes with the space that the other is taking up Interference fit (press fit) - a fastening between two parts which is achieved by friction after the parts are pushed together Parallelism vs. Flatness - with parallelism a reference is made to a datum plane, while flatness is independent of a datum Tolerance the total amount by which a specific dimension may vary (difference between the maximum and minimum limits)
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Gage Type / Technology


Bore Gage - used to measure the inside diameter of a hole Caliper - precise slide movement for inside, outside, depth or step measurements Custom / OEM Gage examples are micrometer heads, air gauging rings, custom ring gages, go / no-go gages Depth Gage - used to measure depth. Usually consist of a solid base with a protruding rod or slide Gage Block - dimensional standards used to calibrate, check, or set variable or fixed limit gages Go - No Go / Functional Gage - a precision tool for production comparative gauging based on fixed limits (pin/plug, ring, or snap gage) Height Gage - used to measure height (ex: vernier, micrometer, surface height gages) Micrometer - instruments for precision dimensional gauging (ex: scale, digital, and dial variations micrometers) Thickness Gage - used to measure the thickness of metal sheets or strips, plastic webs or films, and other thin materials or sections of components (ex: micrometers, calipers, laser micrometers, and indicating thickness gages) Thread / Serration Gage - designed for measuring thread size, pitch, or other parameters (ex: thread plug, thread ring, measuring wire, thread comparator, thread gauging rolls, thread gauging spring, and STI plug gages)

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Measurement/Measuring Tools
Transfer Tools - tools that cannot be read directly
Made to contact part, locked into place, measured with another tool

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Measurement/Measuring Tools
Reference and Measured surface Referenced surface - a fixed surface Measured surface - a movable surface Proper measurement requires fixing the reference surface and measuring with the movable surface Proper Tool for measurement Rule of thumb (10 to 1 rule) - select a measuring tool that is ten times more accurate than the tolerance to be measured (ex: to measure a tolerance of .010, pick a tool accurate to .001 Unnecessary accuracy increases time and cost of measurement Use tool properly Develop a feel for constant and proper pressure Pick proper tool for job Storage
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Measurements and Accuracy


Accuracy vs. Precision Accuracy - the difference between the average of several measurements made on a part and the true value of that part Precision - getting consistent results repeatedly Calibration Wear, mishandling, improper calibration standard are a few conditions that effect calibration Measuring instruments must be checked periodically for calibration Gages found out of tolerance must be corrected and assessment made to determine effects on products inspected with gage.
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Measurement Errors
Observational Misreading the gage Parallax error Manipulative Holding the gage incorrectly Not locating datum's properly Mounting the part on the wrong datum's Not aligning the gage properly Bias Rounding off incorrectly Gage inaccuracy
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Measurement Errors
Gage errors Precision loss (e.g., a sluggish or sticking indicator) Accuracy loss (e.g., incorrect gage block stack, bent micrometer frame) Out-of-calibration error Part error Within-the-piece variation (e.g., taper, roundness, etc.) Dirty parts Poor surface finish Flaws
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Surface Plates
Types Flat surface Cast Iron Granite Damaged areas produce no raised material Lower in price Retain flatness longer Will not rust Care Do not abuse No unnecessary objects Not a storage area (keep only what you are using at the time on the surface plate) Clean surface plate before and after use Keep covered when not in use (do not set objects on plate when not in use)
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Surface Plates
Accessories Angle plates (knee) V-Blocks Matched V-Blocks Matched V-Blocks can be use to contact multiple datum diameters Stack gage blocks Planer gages Fixed parallels Rectangular in shape Available in various sizes Extends reference surface where necessary

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Surface Plates Object Placement and Removal

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Surface Plates - Datum Planes


The image to the left designates the primary three datum surface contact points. Primary: is the supporting datum that must be contacted at the 3 highest points on the surface. This is usually accomplished by a flat datum locating surface such as surface plates. Secondary: This is the aligning datum that must be contacted at the two highest points on the surface. Tertiary: This is the stopping datum that must be contacted at the highest point on the surface.

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Surface Plate Tools and Procedures


Surface Gages
Plane surface gage Surface gage and indicator Errors using surface gage
Loose Clamps Too-long indicator support rod Upright post not at 90 with surface plate Loose fine adjustment bolts

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Plane Surface Gage

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Surface Gage and Indicator

Block stack on surface plate: Transfer Measurement References Height

Note: The primary measurement made on surface plate is height!


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Surface Plate - Direct Measurements

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Surface Plate Hand Tool Errors


Mis-calibration Dirt - clean before using Wear Heat - do not hold tool for extensive period Burrs Training - reading, at angle, wrong tool Manipulation Geometry - out of round, etc.
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Surface Plate Measurement Errors


Gage Block - not wrung together or not in proper size Clamps - not tight enough to avoid movement Wear - excessive wear in high use areas Vibration - work bench vibration Parallelism - work piece not parallel Dirt - surface not properly cleaned Support rod length - cantilever effect Tip wear - flat tip does not provide proper reading Reading - errors reading scale Parallax - reading scale from angel other than 90

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Electrical/Pressure Measurements
Pneumatic systems utilize relief valves and burst disc to relieve pressures at predetermined rates. Hydraulic fluid systems use selector valves to direct flow of fluid to varies components and systems. Fluids readily transmit pressure but are incompressible. The component in a hydraulic systems that is used to direct the flow of the fluid is the selector valve. (Metering Valve/Proportioning Valve) All fluids readily transmit pressure
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Electrical/Pressure Measurements
In a fix container when the pressure increases, the temperature increases

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Nondestructive Testing

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Definition of NDT
The use of noninvasive techniques to determine the integrity of a material, component or structure or quantitatively measure some characteristic of an object.
i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.
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Methods of NDT
Visual

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What are Some Uses of NDE Methods?


Flaw Detection and Evaluation Leak Detection Location Determination Dimensional Measurements

Structure and Microstructure Characterization


Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
Fluorescent penetrant indication

Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements


Material Sorting and Chemical Composition Determination
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When are NDE Methods Used?


There are NDE application at almost any stage in the production or life cycle of a component.
To assist in product development To screen or sort incoming materials To monitor, improve or control manufacturing processes To verify proper processing such as heat treating To verify proper assembly To inspect for in-service damage

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Six Most Common NDT Methods


Visual Liquid Penetrant Magnetic Ultrasonic Eddy Current X-ray

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Visual Inspection
Most basic and common inspection method. Tools include fiberscopes, borescopes, magnifying glasses and mirrors. Portable video inspection unit with zoom allows inspection of large tanks and vessels, railroad tank cars, sewer lines. Robotic crawlers permit observation in hazardous or tight areas, such as air ducts, reactors, pipelines.
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Liquid Penetrant Inspection


A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is applied to the surface of the part and allowed time to seep into surface breaking defects. The excess liquid is removed from the surface of the part. A developer (powder) is applied to pull the trapped penetrant out the defect and spread it on the surface where it can be seen. Visual inspection is the final step in the process. The penetrant used is often loaded with a fluorescent dye and the inspection is done under UV light to increase test sensitivity.

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Magnetic Particle Inspection


The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment are then applied to the specimen. These particles are attracted to magnetic flux leakage fields and will cluster to form an indication directly over the discontinuity. This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting conditions.

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Magnetic Particle Crack Indications

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Radiography
The radiation used in radiography testing is a higher energy (shorter wavelength) version of the electromagnetic waves that we see as visible light. The radiation can come from an X-ray generator or a radioactive source.
High Electrical Potential Electrons +

X-ray Generator or Radioactive Source Creates Radiation

Radiation Penetrate the Sample


Exposure Recording Device

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Film Radiography
The part is placed between the radiation source and a piece of film. The part will stop some of the radiation. Thicker and more dense area will stop more of the radiation. The film darkness (density) will vary with the amount of radiation X-ray film reaching the film through the test object. = less exposure = more exposure
Top view of developed film
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Radiographic Images

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Eddy Current Testing


Coil Coil's magnetic field

Eddy current's magnetic field

Eddy currents Conductive material


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Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface cracks but can also be used to make electrical conductivity and coating thickness measurements. Here a small surface probe is scanned over the part surface in an attempt to detect a crack.
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Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-Echo)


High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material and they are reflected back from surfaces or flaws.

Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and inspector can visualize a cross section of the specimen showing the depth of features that reflect sound.
initial pulse

crack echo

back surface echo

crack plate
0 2 4 6 8 10

Oscilloscope, or flaw detector screen

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Ultrasonic Imaging
High resolution images can be produced by plotting signal strength or time-of-flight using a computercontrolled scanning system.

Gray scale image produced using the Gray scale image produced using sound reflected from the back surface the sound reflected from the front of the coin (inspected from heads side) surface of the coin www.spacetec.org

Common Application of NDT


Inspection of Raw Products Inspection Following Secondary Processing In-Services Damage Inspection

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Inspection of Raw Products


Forgings, Castings, Extrusions, etc.

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Inspection Following Secondary Processing


Machining Welding Grinding Heat treating Plating etc.

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Inspection For In-Service Damage


Cracking Corrosion Erosion/Wear Heat Damage etc.

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Power Plant Inspection


Periodically, power plants are shutdown for inspection. Inspectors feed eddy current probes into heat exchanger tubes to check for corrosion damage.

Pipe with damage

Probe
Signals produced by various amounts of corrosion thinning.

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Wire Rope Inspection


Electromagnetic devices and visual inspections are used to find broken wires and other damage to the wire rope that is used in chairlifts, cranes and other lifting devices.

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Storage Tank Inspection


Robotic crawlers use ultrasound to inspect the walls of large above ground tanks for signs of thinning due to corrosion.

Cameras on long articulating arms are used to inspect underground storage tanks for damage.
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Aircraft Inspection
Nondestructive testing is used extensively during the manufacturing of aircraft. NDT is also used to find cracks and corrosion damage during operation of the aircraft. A fatigue crack that started at the site of a lightning strike is shown below.

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Jet Engine Inspection


Aircraft engines are overhauled after being in service for a period of time. They are completely disassembled, cleaned, inspected and then reassembled. Fluorescent penetrant inspection is used to check many of the parts for cracking.

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Crash of United Flight 232


Sioux City, Iowa, July 19, 1989
A defect that went undetected in an engine disk was responsible for the crash of United Flight 232.

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Pressure Vessel Inspection


The failure of a pressure vessel can result in the rapid release of a large amount of energy. To protect against this dangerous event, the tanks are inspected using radiography and ultrasonic testing.

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Rail Inspection
Special cars are used to inspect thousands of miles of rail to find cracks that could lead to a derailment.

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Bridge Inspection
The US has 578,000 highway bridges. Corrosion, cracking and other damage can all affect a bridges performance. The collapse of the Silver Bridge in 1967 resulted in loss of 47 lives. Bridges get a visual inspection about every 2 years. Some bridges are fitted with acoustic emission sensors that listen for sounds of cracks growing.
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Pipeline Inspection
NDT is used to inspect pipelines to prevent leaks that could damage the environment. Visual inspection, radiography and electromagnetic testing are some of the NDT methods used.
Remote visual inspection using a robotic crawler.

Magnetic flux leakage inspection. This device, known as a pig, is placed in the pipeline and collects data on the condition of the pipe as it is pushed along by whatever is being transported.

Radiography of weld joints.

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Special Measurements
Boeing employees in Philadelphia were given the privilege of evaluating the Liberty Bell for damage using NDT techniques. Eddy current methods were used to measure the electrical conductivity of the Bell's bronze casing at various points to evaluate its uniformity.

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For More Information on NDT


The Collaboration for NDT Education www.ndt-ed.org

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing www.asnt.org


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NDT Evaluation Summary


Visual Testing Closed Circuit TV Borescope Surface/weld inspection Parts such as aluminum forging and castings are best tested with Visual selection first, second Eddy Current, Ultrasound and Dye Penetrate. This scenario is considered Best Practice because of contaminates applied to parts surfaces Liquid Penetrate Dye Pen Visible and Fluorescent methods For ferrous metals such as carbon steel, non-ferrous metals such as aluminum and non-porous plastics Parts being prepared for dye pen inspections should be cleaned with volatile petroleum based solvent

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NDT Evaluation Summary


Magnetic Particle Detects flaws on or near the surface A flaw that is perpendicular to the magnetic field flux lines generally causes a large disruption in the magnetic field Two types of indicating mediums used: wet and dry process Ultrasonic Testing Flaw Detection/Sizing Bond Testing Thickness Bolt Torque Eddy Current Flaw Detection/Sizing Coating Thickness Measurement Conductivity Measurement Used to detect surface or near surface defects in most metals Requires little or no part preparation
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NDT Evaluation Summary


Radiographic Testing X-Ray, Isotope Gamma Ray Compute Tomography Micro-focus-Real-time Film Digitization Leak Testing Bubble Check Mass Spectrometer Ultrasonic Leak Detection

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NDT Evaluation Summary


Infrared Testing Qualitative Inspection, (A qualitative analysis of the qualities that cannot be measured concretely) Qualitative examinations performance shows variable thermal gradient images on high-resolution video monitor Quantitative Inspection (A quantitative property is one that exists in a range of magnitudes, and can therefore be measured) Quantitative Infrared inspection involves obtaining temperature measurements of components in either static or dynamic conditions Composite testing Ring test/tapping method a dull thud could indicate a separation of laminates in a composite panel Preferred method to inspect a composite laminate structure that has been subject to damage would be to strip the surface paint or stain and shine a bright light through the structure
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