MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS, 361-1-3151

MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS

361-1-3151 Eugene Paperno
http://www.ee.bgu.ac.il/~paperno/

Eugene Paperno, 2006

MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS. Grading policy

GRADING POLICY
20% participation in lectures
30% home exercises 50% presentation

MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS. Grading policy

HOMEWORK
Build in LabView the following virtual instruments (VI): 1. Lock-in amplifier SR830 www.thinksrs.com/mult/SR810830m.htm 2. Spectrum analyzer SR785 http://www.thinksrs.com/mult/SR785m.htm

MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS

The mathematical theory of measurement is elaborated in:

Krantz, D. H., Luce, R. D., Suppes, P., and Tversky, A. (1971). Foundations of measurement. (Vol. I: Additive and polynomial representations.). New York: Academic Press. Suppes, P., Krantz, D. H., Luce, R. D., and Tversky, A. (1989). Foundations of measurement. (Vol. II: Geometrical, threshold, and probabilistic representations). New York: Academic Press. Luce, R. D., Krantz, D. H., Suppes, P., and Tversky, A. (1990). Foundations of measurement. (Vol. III: Representation, axiomatization, and invariance). New York: Academic Press. Measurement theory was popularized in psychology by S. S. Stevens, who originated the idea of levels of measurement. His relevant articles include: Stevens, S. S. (1946), On the theory of scales of measurement. Science, 103, 677-680. Stevens, S. S. (1951), Mathematics, measurement, and psychophysics. In S. S. Stevens (ed.), Handbook of experimental psychology, pp 1-49). New York: Wiley. Stevens, S. S. (1959), Measurement. In C. W. Churchman, ed., Measurement: Definitions and Theories, pp. 18-36. New York: Wiley. Reprinted in G. M. Maranell, ed., (1974) Scaling: A Sourcebook for Behavioral Scientists, pp. 22-41. Chicago: Aldine. Stevens, S. S. (1968), Measurement, statistics, and the schemapiric view. Science, 161, 849-856.

Reference: http://www.measurementdevices.com/mtheory.html

MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS. Contents

CONTENTS
1. Basic principles of measurements 1.1. Definition of measurement 1.2. Definition of instrumentation 1.3. Why measuring? 1.4. Types of measurements 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 2. Measurement of physical quantities 2.1. Acquisition of information 2.2. Units, systems of units, standards
2.2.1. Units 2.2.1. Systems of units 2.2.1. Standards

2.3. Primary standards

2.3.1. Primary voltage standards 2.3.2. Primary current standards 2.3.3. Primary resistance standards 2.3.4. Primary capacitance standards

MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS. Contents

2.3.5. Primary inductance standards 2.3.6. Primary frequency standards 2.3.7. Primary temperature standards

3. Measurement methods 3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods 3.2. Interchange method and substitution method 3.3. Compensation method and bridge method 3.4. Analogy method 3.5. Repetition method 3.6. Enumeration method 4. Measurement errors 4.1. Systematic errors 4.2. Random errors
4.2.1. Uncertainty and inaccuracy 4.2.2. Crest factor

4.3.

Error propagation ( ,)
4.2.1. Systematic errors 4.2.1. Random errors

MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS. Contents

5. Sources of errors 5.1. Influencing the measurement object: matching

5.4.1. 5.4.2. 5.4.3. 5.4.4. Anenergetic matching Energic matching Non-reflective matching When to match and when not?

5.2.

Noise types
5.2.1. Thermal noise 5.2.2. Shot noise 5.2.3. 1/f noise

5.3.

Noise characteristics
5.3.1. Signal-to-noise ratio, SNR 5.3.2. Noise factor, F, and noise figure, NF 5.3.3. Calculating SNR and input noise voltage from NF 5.3.4. Two source noise model

5.4.

Low-noise design: noise matching 5.4.1. Maximization of SNR

5.4.2. 5.4.3. 5.4.4. 5.4.5. 5.4.6. Noise in diodes Noise in bipolar transistors Noise in FETs Noise in differential and feedback amplifiers Noise measurements

MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS. Contents

10

5.5.

Interference: environment influence

5.5.1. 5.5.2. 5.5.3. 5.5.4. 5.5.5. 5.5.6. Thermoelectricity Piezoelectricity Leakage currents Cabling: capacitive injection of interference Cabling: inductive injection of interference Grounding: injection of interference by improper grounding

6.

5.5. Observer influence: matching Measurement system characteristics 6.1. Sensitivity 6.2. Sensitivity threshold 6.3. Signal shape sensitivity 6.4. Resolution 6.5. Non-linearity 6.6. System response

MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS. Contents

11

7. Measurement devices in electrical engineering 7.1. Input transducers

7.1.1. Mechanoelectric transducers 7.1.2. Thermoelectric transducers 7.1.3. Magnetoelectric transducers

7.2.

Signal conditioning
7.2.1. 7.2.2. 7.2.3. 7.2.4. 7.2.5. 7.2.6. Attenuators Compensator network Measurement bridges Instrumentation amplifiers Non-linear signal conditioning Digital-to-analog conversion

8. Electronic measurement systems 8.1. Frequency measurement 8.2. Phase meters 8.3. Digital voltmeters 8.4. Oscilloscopes 8.5. Data acquisition systems

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.1. Definition of measurement

12

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS 1.1. Definition of measurement

Measurement is the acquisition of information about a state or phenomenon (object of measurement) in the world around us. This means that a measurement must be descriptive with regard to that state or object we are measuring: there must be a relationship between the object of measurement and the measurement result. The descriptiveness is necessary but not sufficient aspect of measurement: when one reads a book, one gathers information, but does not perform a measurement.

Reference: [1]

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.1. Definition of measurement

13

A second aspect of measurement is that it must be selective: it may only provide information about what we wish to measure (the measurand) and not about any other of the many states or phenomena around us. This aspect too is a necessary but not sufficient aspect of measurement. Admiring a painting inside an otherwise empty room will provide information about only the painting, but does not constitute a measurement. A third and sufficient aspect of measurement is that it must be objective. The outcome of measurement must be independent of an arbitrary observer.

Reference: [1]

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.1. Definition of measurement

14

In accordance with the three above aspects: descriptiveness, selectivity, and objectiveness, a measurement can be described as the mapping of elements from an empirical source set
onto elements of an abstract image set with the help of a particular transformation (measurement model).
Empirical space
Transformation
States, phenomena Source set S Abstract, well-defined symbols Image set I

Image space

si

ii

Source set and image set are isomorphic if the transformation does copy the source set structure (relationship between the elements).
Reference: [1]

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.1. Definition of measurement

15

Example: Measurement as mapping

Empirical space
State (phenomenon): Static magnetic field Transformation

Image space
Abstract symbol

B= f (R, w, V ) R
Instrumentation

w
V

Measurement model

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.2. Definition of instrumentation

16

1.2. Definition of instrumentation

In order to guarantee the objectivity of a measurement, we must use artifacts (tools or instruments). The task of these instruments is to convert the state or phenomenon into a different state or phenomenon that cannot be misinterpreted by an observer. The field of designing measurement instruments and systems is called instrumentation.

Instrumentation systems must guarantee the required descriptiveness, the selectivity, and the objectivity of the measurement.

Reference: [1]

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.3. Why measuring?

17

1.3. Why measuring?

Let us define pure science as science that has sole purpose of describing the world around us and therefore is responsible for our perception of the world. In pure science, we can form a better, more coherent, and objective picture of the world, based on the information measurement provides. In other words, the information allows us to create models of (parts of) the world and formulate laws and theorems. We must then determine (again) by measuring whether this models, hypotheses, theorems, and laws are a valid representation of the world. This is done by performing tests (measurements) to compare the theory with reality.

Reference: [1]

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.3. Why measuring?

18

We consider applied science as science intended to change the world: it uses the methods, laws, and theorems of pure science to modify the world around us. In this context, the purpose of measurements is to regulate, control, or alter the surrounding world, directly or indirectly. The results of this regulating control can then be tested and compared to the desired results and any further corrections can be made. Even a relatively simple measurement such as checking the tire pressure can be described in the above terms: 1) a hypothesis: we fear that the tire pressure is abnormal;

2) perform measurement;
3) alter the pressure if it was abnormal.

Reference: [1]

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.3. Why measuring?

19

Illustration: Measurement in pure and applied science

REAL WORLD
empirical states phenomena, etc.

IMAGE
abstract numbers symbols, labels, etc. SCIENCE

Measurement

Applied

Pure

(processing, interpretation) measurement results

Control/change Hypotheses laws theories

Verification (measurement) Control/change

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.4. Types of measurements

20

1.4. Types of measurements

To represent a state, we would like our measurements to have some of the following characteristics. Distinctiveness: A B, A B. Ordering in magnitude: A < B, A B, A > B. Equal/unequal intervals: A-B < C-D, A-B C-D, A-B > C-D . Ratio: A k B (absolute zero is required). Absolute magnitude: A ka REF, B kb REF (absolute reference or unit is required). These five characteristics are used to determine the five types (levels) of measurements.
Reference: [1]

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.4. Types of measurements

21

Illustration: Levels of measurements (S. S. Stevens, 1946)

ABSOLUTE Abs. unit RATIO Abs. zero

INTERVAL Distance is meaningful

ORDINAL States can be ordered

NOMINAL States are only named

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

22

1.5. Scaling of measurement results

A scale is an organized set of measurements, all of which measure one property.

The types of scales reflect the types of measurements:

1. nominal scale, 2. ordinal scale, 3. interval scale, 4. ratio scale, 5. absolute scale.

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

23

A scale is not always unique; it can be changed without loss of isomorphism.

Empirical space
Transformation
States, phenomena Source set S

Image space

si

Abstract, well-defined symbols Image set I

ii

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

24

A scale is not always unique; it can be changed without loss of isomorphism.

Empirical space
Transformation
States, phenomena Source set S

Image space

si

Abstract, well-defined symbols Image set I

ii ii

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

25

1. Nominal scale State orthogonality Image1

Examples:
numbering of football players, 1 1

detection
and alarm systems, etc. 0 0

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

26

1. Nominal scale State orthogonality Image2=(Image1+1)p

Examples:
numbering of football players, 1 2p 1 2p

detection or
alarm systems, etc. 0 p 0 p

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

27

1. Nominal scale State orthogonality Image3=Cos(Image2)

Examples:
numbering of football players, 1 2p 1 2p

detection or
alarm systems, etc. -p1 -p1

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

28

1. Nominal scale State orthogonality Image4=Image32p

Examples:
numbering of football players, 2 1 p 2 1 p

detection or
alarm systems, etc. -21 p -21 p

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

29

1. Nominal scale State orthogonality Image5=Cos(Image4)

Examples:
numbering of football players, 2 1 p 2 1 p

The structure is lost!

detection or
alarm systems, etc. Any one-to-one transformation can be used to change the scale. -1 2p -1 2p

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

30

2. Ordinal scale State order Image1

Examples: IQ test,
etc.

A 1 B 1

A 2 B 1

A 2 B 1

A 1 B 2

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

31

2. Ordinal scale State order Image2 Image12

Examples: IQ test,
etc.

A 1 B 1

A 4 2 B 1

A 4 2 B 1

A 1 B 4 2

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

32

2. Ordinal scale State order Image3 -Image2

Examples: IQ test,
competition results,

A A1 1 B B1 1

A A4 4 B B1 1

The structure is lost!

etc.
A A4 4 B B1 1 A A1 1 B B4 4

Any monotonically increasing transformation, either linear or nonlinear, can be used to change the scale.

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

33

Interval scale State interval Image1 A 4 B4 A-B 0

Examples: time scales,

temperature scales, etc.,

A 5 B4 A-B 1

where the
origin or zero is not fixed (floating). A 8 B4 A-B 4 A 6 B7 A-B 1

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

34

Interval scale State interval Image2 10Image1+2 A 4 42 B4 42 A-B 0

Examples: time scales,

temperature scales, etc.,

A 5 52 B4 42 A-B 1 10

where the
origin or zero is not fixed (floating). A 8 82 B4 42 A-B 4 40 A 6 62 B7 72 A-B 1 10

Any increasing linear transformation can be used to change the scale.

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

35

4. Ratio scale State ratio Image1 A 4 B4 A/B 1

Examples: measurement
of any physical quantities

A 5 B4 A/B 5/4

having fixed
(absolute) origin. A 8 B4 A/B 2 A 6 B7 A/B 6/7

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

36

4. Ratio scale State ratio Image2 10Image1 A 4 40 B4 40 A/B 1

Examples: measurement
of any physical quantities

A 5 50 B4 40 A/B 5/4

having fixed
(absolute) origin. A 8 80 B4 40 A/B 2 A 6 60 B7 70 A/B 6/7

The only transformation that can be used to change the scale is the multiplication by any positive real number.

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results

37

5. Absolute scale State absolute value Image

Examples: measurement
of any physical quantities by

Ref.

Ref.

A 1

A 5/4

comparison
against an absolute unit (reference). No transformation can be used to change the scale
Ref. Ref.

A 2

A 3/2

Next lecture

38

Next lecture: LabView (in the computer class)