1

The spectrum monitoring

Mr.Zhao Zheng
Engineer of Beijing Monitoring Station
State Radio Monitoring Center
Zhao.z@srrc.org.cn
+8610-60271116

Radio Monitoring and Spectrum Management Training
(China,23-31,May,2005)

2
General introduction
DF method and location
Siting of monitoring stations
Typical Procedure for Dealing with
Interference Complaints
Contents
3
General Introduction
Brief introduction


Types of monitoring stations
4
Spectrum management
Spectrum monitoring
Eye
and
ear
Spectrum monitoring function
Efficiency of
using spectrum
5
The goals of monitoring
General
support the management
Specially
resolution of EMC problem
ensuring an acceptable quality of radio and TV
providing valuable monitoring data
providing valuable monitoring information
6
Tasks of the monitoring service
From radio regulation (RR)
On national basis
Assigned to the radio inspection
Cooperation with other bodies
7
Tasks from RR
Monitoring emissions for compliance with frequency
assignment
Frequency band observations and frequency channel
occupancy measurements
Investigating cases of interference

Identifying and stopping unauthorized emissions
8
Tasks on national basis
Assistance on special occasions
Radio coverage measurements
Radio compatibility and EMC studies
Technical and scientific studies
9
Tasks assigned to the radio inspection
Inspecting radio equipment on site
Measuring radio equipment
Processing cases EMC
Market surveillance activities
10
Cooperation with other bodies
Police and court
11
Measurement tasks
Frequency Frequency counter
Field strength spectrum analyzer
Bandwidth spectrum analyzer
Modulation vector analyzer
Spectrum occupancy automatic receiver
Direction finding DFer
12
Type of monitoring station
Frequency band
HF, V/UHF station

Different application
fixed, mobile, portable


13
Fixed monitoring station
Central element of the monitoring system
Advantages:
without limitation of workspace
setup of antenna
power supply
Disadvantage:
limited by environment
coverage


14
Common Fixed monitoring station
block diagram
Spec-022
GPS
receiver
Video recorders
and other
peripheral
equipment
Frequency
standard to
equipment
VLF/HF - VHF/UHF
DF and measuring
receivers
L
A
N
RF
distribution
and
antenna
switching
DF
antenna
switching
Data
recorders
Console
Console
Console
Printers
Database
Uninterruptable
power supply
Engine
generator
110/220 V
50/60 Hz Router
Wide area network
DF: direction finding
GPS: global positioning system
15
ExampleDF system

Antenna array
triangle array (cross-loop element))
16
Picture of antenna array
17
ExampleDF system interface
DF technique correlative interferometer
18
Examplelistening system
Log antenna
19
Pictures of listening site
20
Listening interface
21
Mobile monitoring station
Advantages
flexibility
expanded coverage
Disadvantages
limited by workspace
setup antenna
power supply
living condition


22
What is the first important thing for mobile
monitoring station?
GPS system
ensure the location
know the bearing
23
Division by different transportation

Vehicle station
Airborne station
Marinetime station
24
Vehicles
General consideration
Antennas for vehicle monitoring station
Requirements to be fulfilled by the
vehicle
Power supply
Examples of a vehicle concept
25
General consideration
what functions the vehicle is to be used for
general-purpose or specialized


What manner it is to be used in
(where and how long)
26
Antennas for vehicle monitoring station
The size and the number
Distorting effectcalibration
Directional antenna

27
Requirements to be fulfilled by the vehicle
Communication system
Sufficient leg room
Windows
Safety
Convenient seat location
Interior light
Thermal insulation
Weight
Powerful built-in generating set
Speed
28
Spec-023
Telescopic mast
Air conditioning
system
Onboard Diesel
generator
19" cabinet
equipment
O
p
e
r
a
t
o
r
t
a
b
l
e
Interior of a mobile monitoring station
29
Power supply
Equipment type Power consumption (W)
Spectrum analyser (26 GHz, portable) 210
Oscilloscope (400 MHz, portable) 120
Signal generator (100 kHz-2 GHz) 200
DF (20 MHz-3 GHz) 140
HF receiver 150
Industrial personal computer (PC) with colour display monitor 200
30
Power supply
Batteries and secondary cells
Alternators coupled to the engine-Inverters
Generating sets
Mains supply
Diesel engine preferred
31
Examples of a vehicle concept
32
33
34
The vehicle example
35
Rear view

36
Interior View 1

37
Interior View 2

38
Brief introduction of this example
Frequency band :HF and V/UHF bands.
DF method:
Watson-Watt method on HF
correlative interferometer on V/UHF
ITU measurement
39
Airborne monitoring stations
advantage
1. Quick exploration of broad geographical areas
2. obtaining several lines of bearing from different locations
3. Better opportunity to perform measurements due to line of sight
4. Rapid location of emergency beacons, interferers and Earth stations
which sometimes cannot be detected from ground
5. All means of measurement of aeronautical flight aid transmissions
40
Airborne monitoring stations
Disadvantage
1.Cost of flight
2.Limitations in weight, power, size, cooling
3.Limited by weather, winds
4.Limited flight time due to fuel limitations
5.Requires accurate azimuth and depression angle, fast DF capability and
antenna tracking
6. Frequency compensation for relative velocity may be needed

41
Maritime monitoring stations
Advantage
the area surrounding the marine vessel is generally very quiet
from a radio frequency point of view
Disadvantage
Corrosive atmosphere
Multipath due to sea state reflection
Antenna mounting
Radio frequency ducting over warm bodies of
water
42
Portable monitoring station
advantage
more flexibility than mobiles
one person can carry
Disadvantage
less functions
less accuracy
43
DF and Location




44
Contents
DF
General principle of DF
Main DFers features
DF methods
Bearing related topics
DF features due to frequency difference
DF antenna
Location
Location overview
Cross-bearing location
Single station location

45
General Principle of DF
Concept of radio DF
Concept of azimuth
The basic architecture of DF system
46
The process to determine the line of bearing
(LOB) of any source of electromagnetic radiation
by means of the propagation properties of radio
waves.

Normally, direction is expressed by azimuth.
Concept of Radio DF
47
Direction Finder
Reference direction radiation source
Concept of Azimuth
Azimuth: the clockwise
angle from the line
( the radiation source to
the direction finder) to
a reference direction.


Geographical north ;
geomagnetic north;
or the heading of
vehicle in mobile DF.
48
The Basic Architecture of DF System

Antenna
system
Input
switching
network

Receiver

Terminal
devices
receive the signal
from the radiation
source.
transmit the signal without
distortion. include
impedance convertor,
distribution, etc.

signal processing.
Such as amplify,
demodulate, etc.


get and display the
azimuth.

49
Main DF Engineering Features
50
Accuracy
Concept:

DF error=Vm-V
real

within 1to 3.



51
Sensitivity



Concept:
E
min
ensure the accuracy within certain range

Importance:
extending the coverage of DFer
under good receiving conditions

sufficiently reliable DF
under less favourable receiving conditions.
52
Response time
Concept:
Tmin to finish one DF task


Duration of signal > response time


53
Immunity to distorted wavefronts
(coherent interference)
obstacle
transmitter
what produce distorted
wavefronts?

reflection by obstacles and
diffraction by edges.

multi-path reception.

Result:
There are interferences and
the original plane wavefront
is distorted.
54
Depending on its diameter D, a DF antenna detects only a small
part of the wavefront.
D/
narrow-aperture
DF antennas
medium aperture
DF antennas
Wide-aperture
DF antennas
D/<0.5
0.5<D/<1
D/>1
overcome multi-
path problems and
other sources of
error, providing
higher SNR and
smaller DF errors
than narrow-
aperture antennas.

D: diameter of the
DF antennas.
: wavelength of
the received signal.
choose a DF antenna with large D/
55
Narrow/wide aperture DF antenna
bearing with wide-aperture DF antenna
bearing with narrow-aperture DF antenna
nominal bearing
Nar r ow-/wi de-aper t ur e
DF ant ennas
undistorted
wave front
distorted
wave front
56
Immunity to co-channel interference
Concept:
non-coherent ,co-channel interference.

Erroneous bearings
should be recognized and identified.

Individual bearings
should be taken of all the signals.
57
DF methods

Rotating DF method
Non-rotating DF method
Amplitude-comparison DF method
Phase-comparison DF method
Combination of amplitude and phase DF method
58
Rotating antenna DF method
receiver
90
0
270
Bearing indicator
59
Advantages
High sensitivity due to the directivity of
the antenna
Simple and inexpensive realization
Resolution of multi-wavefronts
Same antenna can be used for direction
finding and monitoring

60
Disadvantages
Probability of intercept is reciprocal of
the directivity
in case of short-duration signals
61
Non-rotating
DF methods
Phase-comparison
DF methods
Amplitude-comparison
DF methods
Dopplers
interferometers
Wullenwebers
Watson-Watts
Combination of amplitude
and phase DF methods
Correlation
62
Amplitude-comparison DF methods



Watson-Watt DF method
Wullenweber DF method
63

Watson-Watt DF method
c uCos KUmSin
N-S


E-W
NS
U
= c uCos KUmCos
EW
U
c uCos KUmSin
=
u
u
Cos
Sin
arctg
U
U
arctg
NS
EW
=
u
=
: Azimuth
: Elevation
Can not get the Elevation
64
Accuracy
(without site influence)
1 to 2
Sensitivity Med-High
NOTE Performance based on antenna selection
Response time < 1 ms
Immunity against
distorted wavefronts
(coherent interference)
Limited, as no wide aperture antenna arrays possible
Immunity against co-
channel interference
(non-coherent
interference)
Separation possible using analogues CRT display
techniques. Operator interpretation of CRT used in
resolving interference pattern.
Digital signal processing cannot algorithmically
separate time coincident co-channel signals. Histogram
techniques may be employed for non-time coincident
signals
Adcock/Watson-Watt DF systems
65
A B
O
120
C
D

Antennas:
ACB (arc)
Time delay network
Antennas:
ADB (line)
AD BD
-
+
Incoming
wave
+ radiation
pattern
- radiation
pattern
Wullenweber DF method
66
Wullenweber direction finder
67
Advantages:
High accuracy
High sensitivity
Strong immunity to co-channel interference

Disadvantages:
Long response time
Complicated structure
Wullenweber DF method
68
Phase-comparison DF methods
Doppler/pseudo-Doppler
Phase interferometer

69
Doppler/pseudo-Doppler
f
f
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4 1
Incoming
wave
70
Accuracy HF/VHF/UHF: 1,VHF: 0.1(D/>4)
Sensitivity High
Response time HF: approx 100ms; VHF/UHF: approx 10ms
Immunity against distorted
wavefronts
(coherent interference)
D/>1, wide-aperture DF antennas
Immunity against co-channel
interference
(non-coherent interference)
Limited, only measure the strongest signal

HF skywave capability With across circle antennas, the signal with
elevation up to 90 can be measured (sensitivity
reduce), SSL function
Doppler/pseudo-Doppler DF system
71

L = d sin u, A t = L
c

= e A t = eL = 2tf d sin u
c c

f = c , = 2 t c d sin u
c

= 2 t d sin u

A B
d
u
u = 0 >< 0
N
Phase interferometer
72
a = d sin u cos A
o t = a/c (distance/speed) = (d sin u cos A )/c
o u = O * o t
o u = (2H d / ) sin u cos A
ou = 2 t d sin u cos A

A
1
2
d
a
u
P1
P2
P3
Considering elevation angle
73
Accuracy (without site
influence)
< 1
Sensitivity High
Response time < 10 ms
< 1 ms*
*NOTE Successful systems, which use antenna switching
to a pair of coherent measurement channels, are common.
Response time is most rapid when one receiver is used for
each antenna, and all measurements are made in parallel.
Immunity against distorted
wavefronts
(coherent interference)
High when using wide aperture antenna arrays
Immunity against co-channel
interference (non-coherent
interference)
Separation possible using histogram techniques for non-time
coincident signals; for time coincident signals only the
signal that is stronger by 3 to 5 dB can be evaluated
Phase interferometer system
74
Combination of amplitude and
phase DF methods
Correlation/Super-resolution
75
Correlation/super-resolution
Antenna array
1
2
3
A,
Reference
channel
1
2
9
3
8
4
7
5
6
Memory
A
ref
,
ref
Incoming wave (azimuth:,elevation:)
,
DF converter
76
Sensitivity High
Accuracy (without site
influence)
< 1
Response time for HF < 100 ms
for VHF/UHF < 10 ms
NOTE System processing times will be lengthened if only one or
two parallel receiver channels are used
Immunity against
distorted wavefronts
(coherent interference)
High when using wide aperture antenna arrays
Immunity against co-
channel interference
(non-coherent
interference)
Separation possible using histogram techniques for non-time
coincident signals; for time coincident signals in the vector
correlation system, only the signal that is stronger by 3 to 5 dB can
be evaluated; the SR-DF system separates multiple signals
Correlative interferometer/Super-resolution-DF (SR-DF)
77
Bearing related topics
Display of bearings
Sources and expression of bearing errors
Classification of bearings
Calibration and correction
78
Display of Bearings
Display of results of a single channel DFer:
Parameters indicated:
numeric DF value
azimuth in polar coordinates
elevation as bar graph (combined with
azimuth display)
DF quality
level
Histogram of DF values
Waterfall (DF values versus time)
79
80
bearing errors
instrument
error
Environment
error
Propagation
error
Operation
error
Maximum
error
Averaging
error
Statistic
probability error
Averaging square
root error
error sources
error expression
Sources and expression
of bearing error:
81
Classification of bearings
Class Bearing
error
(degrees)
Observational characteristics
Signal
strength
Bearing
indication
Fading Interference Bearing
swing
(degrees)
Duration of
observation
A 2 Very
good
or good
definite negligible negligible <= 3 adequate
B 5 fairly good bearing
fluctuation
slight slight > 3
<= 5
short
C 10 weak severely
Fluctuating
bearing
strong strong > 5
<= 10
very short
D >= 10 scarcely
perceptible
ill-defined very
strong
very strong > 10 inadequate
Classifications of bearings (of frequencies below 30 MHz)
82
Classification of bearings
Class Bearing
error
(degrees)
Observational characteristics
Signal
strength
Bearing
indication
Fading Interference Bearing
swing
(degrees)
Duration of
observation
A 1 Very
good
or good
definite negligible negligible <= 1 adequate
B 2 fairly good bearing
fluctuation
slight slight > 1
<=3
short
C 5 weak severely
Fluctuating
bearing
strong strong > 3
<= 5
very short
D >= 5 scarcely
perceptible
ill-defined very
strong
very strong > 5 inadequate
Classifications of bearings (of frequencies above 30 MHz)
83
Calibration and Correction
Because of
errors due
to the
direction
finder site
and
equipment
To check the impact of the
site and re-radiation from
nearby structures, forest etc
on direction finders
performance
To check if
the DFer
works well and
is in good
conditions
after being
installed at the
site
Calibration of mobile
Direction finders
Calibration of fixed
Direction finders
Instrument Calibration
Site Calibration
To eliminate the influence
of the vehicle on the DFer
84
DF features due to
frequency difference
DF below 30MHz
DF above 30MHz
85
DF Below 30MHz
Different propagation modes
DFers are remote from the area of interest
Measurements are relatively unstable
Susceptible to errors induced by reflections
from the ionosphere

86
DF above 30MHz
DFers are in the vicinity of the area of
interest
Measurements are reliable
DF measurements can be made difficult
due to the presence of interference and
the reflections suffered by waves.
87
DF antenna
Antenna parameters
DF antennas in common use

88
Mainly includes:
Radiation Pattern
Directivity
Efficiency and Gain
Impedance characteristic
Antenna Polarization
Bandwidth




Antenna parameters
89


HF range
fixedarrays of monopoles or crossed-loop elements
mobileeither loops or ferrite elements

VHF/UHF range
mostly arrays of dipoles or fans

DF antennas in common use
90
Example 1: HF cross loop antenna
Array of 7 or more cross
loop antennas installed
along an 81 m
equilateral triangle.
91
92
UHF1 sub band antenna (160 - 500
MHz)
h = 55 cm
O = 100.8 cm
/
VHF sub band antenna (20 - 160
MHz)
h = 180 cm
O = 295.6 cm
/
UHF2 Sub band antenna (500 MHz
- 1350 MHz)
h =22 cm
O = 36 cm
/
Example 2: V/UHF dipole antenna
93
94
95
Location
Location overview
Cross-bearing location
Single station location
96
Location Overview
Location method
Cross-bearing Location
(In V/UHF or HF band)
Single Station Location
(Only in HF band)
More accurate but
needs at least two
direction finders
Only need one
direction
finder
97
Cross-bearing location method
Using two or more direction finders in
different geo-positions;

test and get two or more azimuths of
the interference at the same time;

According to the azimuths, along the
arc of the great circle
connect interference with the
receiving point on an electronic map.

the point of intersection is the
location of the radiation source .

Station B
Station C
Station A
Location
area
98
Cross-bearing Location Principle
Basic principle of triangulation
using two direction finders
DFer1: A
DFer2: B
Emitter: E
The reference direction: X axis
Azimuth from DFer1: 1
Azimuth from DFer2: 2
Y
e
-Y
1
=(X
e
-X
1
) tg1
Y
e
-Y
2
=(X
e
-X
1
) tg(180-2)

X
Y
A(X
1
,Y
1
) B(X
2
,Y
2
)
E(X
e
,Y
e
)
1
2
0
Bearing
errors are
not taken
into account.
99
Cross-bearing Location Principle
DFer
Bearing
Uncertainty on
bearing due to
errors
100
Cross-bearing Location Principle
DFer1 DFer2
Bearing
101
Location calculation
Location calculation
Triangulation method
Large circles,
spherical triangles method
Long
distances
When a direction finder is very far from a
transmitter, the bearing line cannot be
considered as a straight line but an arc.
102
Cross-bearing Location Systems
Most common and economical way of
cross-bearing location is a remote-controlled
direction finding system.
103
Remote-controlled DF Systems
Monitoring center
Remote
DF station
Remote
DF station
Remote
DF station
104
Location calculation
dependent on the quality of bearings
Bearings should be analyzed at both DF stations
and monitoring station.
105
Location calculation
DF stations analysis what mainly consist in?
Classifying the bearings
Eliminating aberrant shootings
Calculating the mean value and the
variance of shootings
106
Location calculation
What mainly consist in mobile station?
Determining the bearings to be used for
the location calculation
Calculating the position
Calculating the uncertainty ellipse
107
Location calculation steps
Determining bearing
made reliable for each
DFer
Eliminating off-center
shootings
Location
calculation
Uncertanty ellipse
calculation
Elementary bearings
Azimuth, elevation, typical deviati on
Technical measurements
Frequency, modulation, bandwidth
Ellipce
charactrist ics
Quality
notation
Bearing processing by
the monitoring center
Bearing by
the direction-finder
Bearing made
reliable by DFer
Bearing geograophically
consistent
Lattitude,
longit ude
The computer program TRIANGULATION, that generally
follows these steps, is available in the ITU.
108
Eliminating non-convergent bearings
DFer 1
DFer 2
DFer 3
DFer 4
Areas of uncertainty on each
intersection on bearing from
DFer 1
Uncertainty on
bearing
Bearing
109
Evaluating the location point
The optimum point is searched applying the least
squares method.


... ) / ( ) / ( ) / (
3
2
3 2
2
2 1
2
1
+ + + = v d v d v d S
p
P is any one point
d1, d2, d3,... the angular variations to be applied to
each bearing to intersect P
v1, v 2, v 3,... the variances of the various bearings.
The optimum point is the point minimizing Sp,
110
SSL Principle
DF.
u = Geographical Azimuth
A = Elevation Angle
D = Distance
h = Virtual Reflection Height
DF.
h
D
North
A
u
111
Limitation of SSL technique
Multi-hops propagation
The reflection may take place from
layers of different heights.


112
Siting of Monitoring
Stations
113
General considerations
Frequency ranges and geographical
areas;
International or domestic ;
Whether special installations required;
On-site field strengths;
Administrative considerations;
Land costs;

114
Desirable minimum site
criteria for a station
Location;
Protected from obstacles;
Electromagnetically protected.
115
Additional desirable site
criteria with DFer
General considerations:
Obstacles
Terrain deviation
Soil requirement
Underground pipes etc.
116
Additional desirable site criteria with
DFers (below 30MHz)

Obstacles: see table 1
Terrain: flat ground with water
table near the surface
117
Additional desirable site criteria with
DFers (below 30MHz)
Guiding rules:
Terrain:
no more than 1% within 100m area (HF)
slopes can be steeper within larger area
Obstacles: 2-3 degrees
Ground: clear within 200m area
Cables: 1-2m deep (30m range),
0.5m deep(30-250m)



118
Additional desirable site criteria with
DFers (above 30MHz)
For VHF/UHF DFers requirements in Table 1
may be reduced
In smaller zones: fixed and mobile radios
should be restricted
In larger zones:high power ISM equipment
and major obstacles should be restricted
119
Protection from strong
transmitter fields

General consideration
To protect monitoring capability

120
Protection from strong
transmitter fields(2)
How to evaluate?
Harmonics as well as fundamental
Two or more transmitters(other range)
Experiential way of evaluating
121
Protection from strong
transmitter fields(3)
License applications
Strong signal area:
avoid active antennas
122
Protection from local computer
systems
Computer systems may cause
interference
Computer emissions may be hard to
identify
123
Recommendations:
Shielded cables
computer system installed apart
monitoring offices close to the antennas
avoid or minimize interference in the planning
stage

124
Land requirements
Largely mission dependent
The use of adjacent property
legal aspects related to operational
safety and public safety
125
Other considerations
Road access
Fencing

126
Typical Procedure for Dealing
with Interference Complaints
127
Steps
Complaint report received
Preliminary diagnosis
Localization by mobile means
Measurement of emissions
Measurement evaluation and actions
Final check-up



128
Interference Report
Details of the following are required:
Information of party experiencing the interference;
Data about the interfered-with device;
Data about the following of the interference
1.occurrence
2.description
3.suspected source




129
Preliminary diagnosis
Preliminary diagnosis are performed with
the help of the following:
Fixed and remotely controlled measurement
equipment
Direction-finding
Frequency assignment databases
Switching off the transmitter of the suspected
operator (if possible)


130
Localization by Mobile Means
A complementary means
Could be very time-consuming
131
Measurements of emissions
Once the source has been localized and identified,
Measure the technical characteristics to
determine the nature of the interference;
equipments and their settings should be
recorded for use in the next step.

132
Measurement Evaluation and
Necessary Action
Measurement results compared with
assignment and standards
Actions:
1.Taken out of operation
2.Modification or system rectification
3.Accepted
Fine or other penalty may take place

133
Measurement Evaluation and
Necessary Action
Actions should
Conform to the law;
Be reasonable;
134
Final check-up
Check if remedial actions has been taken
Using fixed or remotely controlled equipment
On-site inspection
Asking the interfered party