Reference: Wayne Tomasi

Sender/Source

Transmitter

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Receiver

Destination

Guided
Uses conductor as conduit in which EM signals are contained

Unguided
WIRELESS SYSTEM NO PHYSICAL CONNECTION Signals are emitted then radiated through AIR or VACUUM Direction depends on the direction that signal was emitted and any obstacle that the signal may encounter while propagating Available to ANYONE who has a device capable of receiving them Ex. Air (Earths atmosphere), Free space (vacuum)

Conductor directs the signal

Requires PHYSICAL CONNECTION to send or receive signals Ex. Metallic lines (open wire, twin lead, twisted pair, and coaxial cables), Optical fiber

ELECTROMAGNETIC Electric + Magnetic field Magnetic Field an invisible force field created by a magnet and is generated around a conductor when current flows through it Electric Field an invisible force field produce by the presence of a potential difference between two conductors

Whenever voltage is applied to the antenna, an electric field is set up. At the same time, this voltage causes current to flow in the antenna, producing a magnetic field. The electric and magnetic field are right angle to each other

The fields vary together both in time and in space. Characteristic Impedance definite ratio between the electric field intensity and the magnetic field intensity (ohms) The relationship between the electric and magnetic intensities is analogous to the relation between voltage and current in circuits.

For a lossless medium, this is equivalent to

Definition: Permeability measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of magnetic field within itself Permittivity measure of the resistance that is encountered when forming an electric field
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For most media in which electromagnetic waves can propagate, the permeability is the same as that of free space. The permittivity is likely to be given as a dielectric constant which is simply the permittivity of the medium relative to that of free space

After some equation manipulation, another formula for characteristic impedance is:

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Oscillate amplitudes of the electric and magnetic fields vary at a specific rate
Frequency number of cycles of a repetitive wave that occurs in a given time period Cycles per second, hertz Wavelength distance occupied by one cycle of wave normally expressed in meters
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Consists of traveling electric and magnetic fields but with the energy evenly divided between the two types of fields Polarization orientation of the ELECTRIC FIELD VECTOR with respect to the surface of the Earth

Linear polarization polarization remains constant Horizontal polarization the electric field is propagating parallel to the Earths surface Vertical polarization the electric field is propagating perpendicular to the Earths surface
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Circular polarization the polarization vector rotates 360 degrees as the wave moves one wavelength through space and the field strength is equal at all angles of polarization
Elliptical polarization the field strength varies with changes in polarization

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RADIO WAVES ARE EM WAVES Signals carried by the cable are EM WAVES (and may occupy the same spectrum) but ARE NOT RADIO WAVES The term RADIO WAVE/RADIO PROPAGATION is unique to FREE-SPACE PROPAGATION Although free space implies a vacuum, propagation through the Earths atmosphere is often referred to as free space propagation as well and is treated as such. The primary difference is that the Earths atmosphere introduces losses and impairments to the signal not encountered in a vacuum
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ISOTROPIC RADIATOR a point in space where EM waves would radiate equally in all direction The wavefront (surface on which all waves have the same phase) of an isotropic radiator would be a spherical An isotropic radiator is not a practical possibility but at distances from a real source that are large compared to the dimension of the source, this is a good approximation. OMNIDIRECTION ANTENNA is a close approximation of an ideal isotropic radiator
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R2

B R1 D

All points of the same distance from the source lie on the same wavefront and have EQUAL power densities At any instance of time, the total power radiated (Prad) is uniformly distributed over the total surface of the sphere (assuming lossless transmission medium) Based on the previous statements, the power density at any point on the sphere can be represented mathematically as:

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If we equate the two power density formula, we get a new formula for getting the electric field strength

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The farther the wavefront moves from the source, the smaller the power density Power density is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source The total power distributed over the surface of the sphere remains the same

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FREE SPACE = VACUUM

NO loss of energy Waves, however, SPREAD OUT resulting in

REDUCTION in POWER DENSITY - ATTENUATION

Attenuation occurs in free space as well as the Earths atmosphere Wave attenuation or space attenuation

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Earths atmosphere is not a vacuum As an EM wave propagates through Earths atmosphere, energy is transferred from the wave to the atoms and molecules of the atmosphere It interchanges energy with free electrons and ions IF the ions do not collide with gas molecules or other ions, all the energy is converted back into EM energy, and the wave continues propagating with no loss of intensity IF ions collide with other particles, they dissipate the energy resulting in absorption ABSORPTION is directly proportional to PARTICLE DENSITY 22GHz 1st peak of water vapor absorption 60GHz 1st peak of oxygen absorption >6GHz effect of rain is insignificant

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Does not depend on the distance from the radiating source but on the total distance that the wave propagates through the atmosphere HOMOGENOUS MEDIUM
one with uniform properties Absorption on the first mile is the same for the last mile

INHOMOGENOUS MEDIUM

Absorption coefficient varies with location

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Real values of refractive index will be less than unity Deviation of the refractive index from unity is greater the lower the frequency and the higher the electron density When 81N > f2 the refractive index is imaginary and the atmosphere is unable to propagate the EM wave without attenuation

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When a ray passes from a less dense to a more dense medium it effectively bent toward the normal. When a ray passes from a more dense to a less dense medium it effectively bent away from the normal NORMAL imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the interface at the point of incidence

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ANGLE OF INCIDENCE angle formed between the incident wave and the normal ANGLE OF REFRACTION angle formed between the refracted wave and the normal SNELLS LAW dictates how an EM wave reacts when it meets the interface of two transmissive materials that have different index of refraction

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The portion of the total incident power that is not reflected is called the power transmission coefficient (T) For a perfect conductor, T = 0 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY for a perfect reflective surface, the total reflected power must equal the total incident power

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Reflection also occurs when the reflective surface is irregular or rough but such surface may destroy the shape of the wavefront DIFFUSE RELECTION When an incident wavefront strikes an irregular surface and scatters in many direction SPECULAR REFLECTION reflection from a perfectly smooth surface Surfaces that fall between smooth and irregular are called semirough surfaces and causes a combination of diffuse and specular reflection A semirough surface will not totally destroy the shape of the reflected wavefront but it will reduce total power

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Modulation or redistribution of energy within a wavefront when it passes near the edge of an opaque object Phenomenon that allows radio waves to propagate (peek) around corners HUYGENS PRINCIPLE

Every point on a given spherical wavefront

can be considered as a secondary point source of EM waves from which other secondary waves are radiated

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Occurs when 2 or more EM waves combine in such a way that system performance is degraded Subject to LINEAR SUPERPOSITION whenever 2 waves occupy the same point in space

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EM waves traveling within Earths atmosphere are called TERRESTRIAL WAVES TERRESTRIAL RADIO COMMUNICATION communication between 2 or more points on Earth EM waves can be propagated in a number of ways depending on TYPE OF SYSTEM AND ENVIRONMENT most of which are FREQUENCY DEPENDENT EM waves travel in STRAIGHT LINES/PATH except when Earth and its atmosphere alter their path 3 WAYS OF EM WAVE PROPAGATION
Surface Wave or Ground Wave Space Wave or Line-of-Site Sky Wave or Ionospheric

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3 WAYS OF EM WAVE PROPAGATION

Surface Wave or Ground Wave Space Wave Sky Wave or Ionospheric

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>2MHz Earth guided EM wave that travels over the surface of the Earth As it moves over the Earths surface, it is accompanied by charges induced in the Earth producing current Earth offers a resistance to the flow of current thus energy is dissipated in a manner very similar to those in transmission line Earths surface is also has DIELECTRIC LOSSES

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Energy is absorbed from the surface wave thus the portion of the wave in contact with the Earths surface is continuously wiped out The energy is replenished by diffraction of energy downward from the portions of the ground wave immediately above the Earths surface Earth has gradient density resulting it to tilt progressively Wave propagates close to the surface

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Attenuation of the surface wave due to absorption depends on the conductivity of Earths surface and frequency of the EM wave (refer to table) Attenuation on terrain increases rapidly with respect to frequency NOT RECOMMENDED FOR HF TRANSMISSION Vertically polarized because if horizontally it would be shortcircuited with the conductivity of the ground

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Includes radiated energy that travels in the lower few miles of the Earths atmosphere DIRECT WAVE + GROUND REFLECTED

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DIRECT WAVE

Travel in a straight line between the transmit and

GROUND REFLECTED WAVE

receive antennas Limited by the curvature of the earth Line-of-sight transmission

Waves reflected by the Earths surface as they

RADIO HORIZON Curvature of the Earth Radio Horizon can be lengthened simply by elevating the transmit or receive antennas

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propagate between the transmit and receive antenna

Effect of antenna height on the radio horizon

For TX and RX antenna

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EM waves directed above the horizon Radiated in a direction that produces a relatively large angle with reference to the earth Either reflected or refracted IONOSPHERE upper portion of the earths atmosphere which absorbs large quantities of the suns radiant energy which ionizes the air molecules creating free electrons

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Electric field of the wave exerts a force on the free electrons causing them to vibrate Vibrating electrons decrease current, which is equivalent to reducing the dielectric constant Reducing the dielectric constant increases propagation velocity and causes EM waves to bend away from the region of high electron density to lower electron density The farther from the earth the higher the ionization upper atmosphere has a higher percentage of ionized molecules than the lower atmosphere Stratified nonuniform density depending on temperature Most dense during maximum sunlight and on summer

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D-layer
Lowest layer Little ionization

Little effect on direction of propagation

Depends on the altitude of the sun so it

disappears at night Reflects VLF and LF Absorbs MF and HF

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E-layer
Kennelly-Heaviside Maximum density at noon when the sun is at

its highest point Almost disappears at night Aids MF and reflects HF during daytime SPORADIC E solar flares and sunspot with high ionization density improves longdistance radio transmission

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F-layer
F1 and F2 Separate during day but combines at night

F1 absorbs and attenuates some HF waves

although most of the wave passes through F2 where they are refracted back to earth

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