2.1 LINEAR MOTION 2.1.1 Distance and Displacement 1. Linear motion is motion in a straight line. 2.

Examples :

A car moving in a straight line

A train moving in a straight line

A falling coconut

A moving bullet

3. Examples of non-linear motion are:

A snake crawling

A roller-coaster ride

kinematics
Linear motion dynamics

Without consideration of forces

Forces are important

4. All physical quantities can be grouped as scalar quantities and vector quantities. 5. A scalar quantity is a quantity which has ________________. 6. A vector quantity is a quantity which has ________________.

(a) Stating a scalar quantity

Ali moves three steps.

(b) Stating a vector quantity

Ali moves three steps to the right.

7. Distance is a scalar quantity while displacement is a vector quantity.

Scalar quantity Vector quantity

Distance
Area Speed

Displacement
Acceleration Velocity

Differences between distance and displacement

Aspect Definition

Displacement Distance taken with consideration of direction Type of quantity Scalar quantity, Vector quantity, with magnitude direction and only magnitude are important SI unit Metre (m) Metre (m)

Distance Total route taken by a motion

A physics teacher walks 4 meters East, 2 meters South, 4 meters West, and finally 2 meters North.

Even though the physics teacher has walked a total distance of 12 meters, her displacement is 0 meters. During the course of her motion, she has "covered 12 meters of ground" (distance = 12 m). Yet when she is finished walking, she is not "out of place" - i.e., there is no displacement for her motion (displacement = 0 m). Displacement, being a vector quantity, must give attention to direction. The 4 meters east is canceled by the 4 meters west; and the 2 meters south is canceled by the 2 meters north. Vector quantities such as displacement are direction aware. Scalar quantities such as distance are ignorant of direction. In determining the overall distance traveled by the physics teachers, the various directions of motion can be ignored.

1. What is the displacement of the cross-country team if they beg at the school, run 10 miles and finish back at the school?
Displacement = 0 miles. 2. A car moving a big roundabout which has a radius of 70m. calculate: (a) the distance moved by the car (b) the displacement of the car. Solution : (a) Circumference = 2r = 440 m (b) zero

IMPORTANT !!!
TO FIND THE DISPLACEMENT OF AN OBJECT, WE SHOULD OBSERVE THE STARTING POINT AND THE AND THE END POINT OF THE OBJECT. THE LENGTH OF THE STRAIGHT LINE CONNECTING THE TWO POINT IS CALLED THE DISPLACEMENT.

3. A cow moves 3m to the east and then 4m to the north. Find the (a) total distance moved by the cow (b) displacement of the cow
Solution: (a) Total distance = length of AB + length of BC =3m+4m A =7m (b) Let the starting point of the cow be A and the end point be C. The displacement is calculated from A to C in the direction of AC. The displacement is 5m in the direction A of AC.

C 4m

B 3m C 5m 4m

B
3m

2.1.2 Speed and Velocity

1. Speed and velocity are physical quantities which measure how fast an object is moving. 2. The speed limit on the highway in Malaysia is 110 km/h. We cannot travel more than 110km in an hour. But we can travel in any direction. 3. An athlete is running towards the checkpoint at a velocity of 24 m/s. When we talk about velocity, we should indicate the direction (towards the checkpoint) and also the magnitude (24 m/s). 4. Speed is a scalar quantity while velocity is a vector quantity.

5. Speed is the rate of change of distance while velocity is the rate of change of displacement. 6. In mathematical writing: Speed = Total distance travelled, s (m) Total time taken, t(s)
Velocity = Total displacement, s(m) Total time taken, t(s)

7. Both speed and velocity have the same SI unit.

ms-1

Aspect Definition Type of physical quantity Formula SI unit Symbol

Speed Rate of change of distance Scalar Speed=Total distance/ Time m/s u, v u- denotes initial speed v- denotes final speed Average speed = Overall speed Total time travel

Velocity Rate of change of displacement Vector Velocity=Total displacement/Time m/s u, v u- denotes initial velocity v- denotes final velocity We usually consider the forward motion (to the right) as the positive and the backward (to the left) as the negative.

Average velocity = Overall velocity Total time travel

Comparison between speed and velocity

Example:
A car starts from point O and moves 50m to the north in 60 seconds. The car then moves 120m to the east in 40 seconds. Finally, it stops. Calculate the: (a)Total distance moved by the car (b)Displacement of the car (c)Velocity of the car (d)Average speed of the car (e)Speed of the car when it is moving to the north.

(a)Total distance = 120 m + 50 m = 170 m

120 m B 50m

(b) O is the initial position B is the final position Displacement = Distance OB = (120)2 + (50)2 = 130 m
120 m B 50m

(c) Velocity = Displacement Time = 130 m (60+40) s = 1.3 m/s

(d) Average speed of the car = Total distance Total time = 170 m (60+40)s = 1.7 m/s

(e) Distance = 50 m Time = 60 s Speed of the car when the car moves to the north = 50 m 60 s = 0.83 m/s

QUIZ !!
A cow walked along a curved path from P to Q, which is 70 m away from P. Q lies to the south west of P. The distance travelled by the cow is 240m and the time taken is 160s. Calculate: (a)Average speed (b)Average velocity of the cow moving from P to Q.

1. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. 2. Acceleration, a = Final velocity Initial velocity Time Taken a=vu t where v = final velocity, u = initial velocity 3. The SI unit of acceleration is 4. Acceleration is a vector quantity. 5. Physically, when an object moves faster and faster it is moving with acceleration. 6. Object that moves slower and slower is moving with deceleration or negative acceleration.

m/s.

0 m/s

2 m/s

4 m/s

6 m/s

An athlete runs with increasing velocity

7. Acceleration has direction. The direction of acceleration is the same as the varying direction of the velocity.
Try to think An object moves (a) Faster forward (b) Faster backwards (c) Slower backwards (d) Slower forward (e) With constant velocity forward or backwards. + + 0 Acceleration

Example 1: A runner runs from the starting line and achieves a velocity of 18 m/s in 3 seconds. Calculate his acceleration.
Acceleration, a = v u t = 18 0 3 = 6 m/s
REMEMBER THE UNIT

Relationship of Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration with Time Equations of linear motion 1. From the definition of acceleration a=vu ..(1) t Where a=acceleration, u=initial velocity, v=final velocity, t=time 2. Rearranging equation (1), we get at = v u Hence v = u + at (2) 3. Displacement, s = average velocity x Time =u+v xt 2 substituting (2) s = u + (u + at) x t 2 Hence s = ut + at (3)

4. From (1) , t = v u a s=u+v xt 2 s=u+v x vu 2 a s = (v - u) 2a 2as = v - u v = u + 2as .(4)

Example:
A car moves in a straight line from its stationary state with a uniform acceleration. It achieves a velocity of 120 m/s after moving through a distance of 100 m. Calculate: (a) The acceleration of the car (b) The time taken (c) The velocity when t = 3s Solution: u = 0 m/s v = 120 m/s s = 100 m a=?

(a) v = u + 2as a = v - u 2s = 120 - 0 2(100) = 72 m/s

(b) a = v u t t=vu a = 120 0 72 = 1.67 s

(c) t = 3s u = 0 m/s a = 72 m/s v=? v = u + at = 0 + 72(3) = 216 m/s

1. A ticker time is used to study the motion of an object for a short period of time.

2. When the terminals are connected to the a.c power supply, the vibrating steel strip (hitter) will vibrate 50 times every second and make 50 dots a second on a tape being pulled through it. 3. The time interval between two consecutive dots (time for one tick) is 1/50 s or 0.02 s.

4. The ticker timer can be used to determine the.. (a) time interval of the motion (b) displacement of the object (c) velocity of the object (d) acceleration of the object (e) type of motion of the object

INERTIA

Concept of inertia

Relationship between mass and inertia

Effects of inertia

Newtons First Law

Inertia balance

2.2.1 Situations Involving the Concept of Inertia

1. A boxer tried to push a sandbag which was hanging stationary. He noticed that it was difficult to get the sandbag to start to move.

2. The boxer than tried to stop the motion of the swinging sandbag. He noticed that it was more difficult to stop the sandbag than to move it. 3. The above phenomena can be explain by the concept of inertia. The swinging sandbag continues to maintain its swing. Hence the boxer feels that it is difficult to stop it. 4. The property of matter that causes it to resist any change on its motion is known as inertia.

2.2.2 Concept of Inertia

Newtons First Law of Motion states that: (a) An object which is at rest will remain stationary.
(b) An object which is moving with constant velocity will continue moving, unless acted upon by external forces.

(c) An object will maintain its state of rest or of uniform motion provided there are no external forces acting on it.

I will remain here if there are no external forces(human, wind,water) acting in me.

I will continue move if there is nobody (external force) to stop me

2.2.3 The Relationship between Mass and Inertia

1. All bodies have mass.

2. The mass of an object is the quantity of matter contained in the body. 3. The S.I unit of mass is the kilogram.
4. A bigger mass will have a bigger inertia. A smaller mass will have a smaller inertia.

Example:
(a) A rock with bigger mass is more difficult move compared to a ball with smaller mass.

Pushing a rock

(b) This is because the inertia of a body increases when its mass increases.

Kicking a ball

Inertia Balance 1. Is a tool used for determining the mass and comparing the masses of two different bodies by determining the period of oscillation. 2. An inertia balance model can also be used for studying the relationship between mass and inertia.

Inference: A bigger mass will be more difficult to move or to stop Hypothesis: The inertia increases when its mass Increases.

2.2.4 Effects of inertia (a) A coin is placed on top of card. (b) Pull the card very quickly horizontally.. what can you see??
When the card is pulled very quickly, the coin does not follow the card. It falls into the glass. The coin possesses inertia which causes it to be stationary. Gravitational force acts on the coin and the coin falls to the bottom of the glass.

The positive effects of inertia

Example 1: The figure shows an elephant chasing a lions. -We should run in all directions when we are chased by an elephant. -The elephant has a big mass (big inertia) and will tend to move in a straight line because it is difficult for it to change its direction. Example 2: To pour out chili sauce Example 3: To tighten the head of a hammer Example 4: The rotated of umbrella that stopped abruptly to shake off the droplets of water.

The Negative Effects of Inertia Design of a car

1. When the car is moving at a very high speed, the car and the passengers will have the inertia to move to the front.

2. When the driver steps on the brakes suddenly, the car stops. But the inertia will throw passengers to the front and hurt them.

Characteristics

Function

(a) The front and back parts of a car are prone to crash

This will increase the time interval, t and reduce the impulsive force, F. The bumper at the front part of the car will reduce the impulsive force, F.

(b) The sitting space of the passenger reinforced (c) Safety belts

To protect the passengers. Safety belts hold the passengers to their seats during collision and prevent the passengers from being thrown to the front due to inertia. This will prevent the passengers from hitting the front part of the car and getting injured. It will inflate when an accident occurs and this prevents the driver from hitting the steering wheel.

(d) Airbag

Loaded Lorries 1. The tanks which carry liquid in a lorry should be divided into smaller tanks for safety reasons (to reduce the effects of inertia) 2. A lorry which carries a big tank cannot stop easily. This because the inertia of the liquid in the tank tends to maintain the state of motion.

Oil tanker lorry

Container Ship A container ship has such a large inertia that it takes over than one hour to accelerate to its full speed or slow down to a stop. Wrestler A Japanese sumo wrestler has large inertia to remain at rest. The greater the mass is, the larger the inertia will be.

Exercise 1 :

Answers :
a) Velocity = Gradient of graph = 15/3 = 5 m s-1

b) Time = 10 3 = 7 s
c) t = 15 s

d) i) Average speed = Distance/time = (15+15)/15 = 2 m s-1

ii) Average velocity = Displacement/time = 0/15 = 0 m s-1

Exercise 2 :

for 13s?

Answers : a) a = Gradient =(0-12)/(13-10) = -4 m s-2 deceleration = 4 m s-2

b) Displacement = area under the graph = x 12 x (4 + 13) = 102 m c) Time = (20 15) = 5 s d) Area of triangle = x 10 x 5 = 25 m Final displacement = 102 25 = 77 m

e) Average velocity = Final displacement / time = 77 m / 20 s = 3.85 m s -1

2.3.1 Concept of Linear Momentum

1. Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity. Momentum = Mass x Velocity p = mv where m = mass, v = velocity 2. Momentum is a vector quantity. The direction of the momentum follows the direction of the velocity: + sign denotes the right direction - sign denotes the left direction

3. The SI units of momentum is

or N s

4. Momentum increases when : (a) the mass increases (b) the velocity increases (c) both of the mass and velocity increases

5. Momentum is a derived physical quantity.

Example:

(a) Momentum of trolley A = 2 kg x (3 m/s) = 6 kg m/s (Ns)

(b) Momentum of trolley B = 2 kg x (-2 m/s) = -4 kg m/s (Ns)

2.3.2 PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATIO N OF MOMENTUM

The principle of conservation of momentum states that the total linear momentum of a closed system of bodies is constant.

This means that the total momentum before the collision is equal to the total momentum after the collision, if no external forces act on the system.

Example: Before collision (a)

After collision

Total momentum Before collision = m u + m u = 2(10) + 3(0) = 20 kgm/s Total momentum after collision = mu + mu = 2v + 3v = 5v kgm/s
1 1 2 2

From the principle of conservation of momentum Total momentum before Collision = Total momentum after collision 20 = 5v v = 4 m/s

(b)

(c)

2.4.1 The Effects of a Force

1. Force is defined as an action which will alter the state of motion of a body in straight line.

2. The symbol of a force is F and its SI unit is the Newton (N). 3. A force is a ____________ quantity which has _____________. 4. A force will alter the body in the aspect of: (a) size (b) shape (c) state of motion (d) direction of motion (e) speed

Balanced Force on an object

1. When all of the forces acting on an object are balanced, they cancel out one another and the net force or resultant force is zero. The object behaves as if there is no force acting on it.

2. Therefore, a stationary object will remain stationary and a moving object will continue moving with the same velocity in a straight line. 3. Balanced forces do not change the state of rest or state of motion of an object.

reaction

reaction

weight (a) forces acting on a stationary car are balanced forces. the weight of the car is balanced by the reaction from the ground acting upwards on the car at the tyres. The net force acting on the car is zero.

(b) Forces acting on an aeroplane causing it to move at constant velocity are balanced forces. lift from the wings

air resistance (drag)

thrust

the lift force is equal to the weight of the aeroplane and the forward thrust is equal to the drag. The net force acting weight on the aeroplane is zero.

Unbalanced Forces Acting on an Object

1. When the forces acting on an object are not balanced, there will be a net force acting on it. 2. This net force is known as unbalanced force or resultant force. 3. So, unbalanced forces causes a stationary object to move or a moving object to accelerate. (change its velocity, i.e: the magnitude, direction or both).

4. For example, when a football player kicks a stationary football, a force acts on the ball and causes it to move forward.

unbalanced acceleration

force cause forward

Only unbalanced forces produce movement.

Action of Balanced and Unbalanced Force

Forces acting on an object

10 N 10 N

Resultant force
Resultant force = 0. Forces are balanced.

10 N 8N 10 N

Resultant force = 5 N to the right. Forces are unbalanced. 15 N Resultant force = 6 N to the left. 7N Forces are unbalanced. 5N

For each of the situations, analyse and state whether the forces acting on the body are balanced or unbalanced forces.
5N 5N

5N

5N 5N

5N

(a) 5N 5N 5N

5N (b) 5N

5N (c)

5N (d)

5N

2.4.2 Relationship between Force, Mass and Acceleration (F = ma) 1. The action of a force on an object can produce an acceleration of the object. 2. The magnitude of the acceleration of an objects depends on (a) the mass of the object (b) the magnitude of the force acting on the object. (a) a F (b) a 1/m Hence a F/m and F ma

A force F, is an action that will result in an acceleration or a deceleration in the motion of a body.

Newtons Second Law of Motion

Newtons Second Law of motion states that when a net external force acts on an object, the acceleration of the object is directly proportional to the net force and has a magnitude that is inversely proportional to its mass.
a a

F 0

aF when m is constant

a 1/m when F is constant

Hence.. F ma F = kma , where k is a constant

In SI units, F is the force in newtons, N m is the mass in kilograms, kg 2 a is the acceleration in metres per second per second, ms 3. One newton of force is defined as the magnitude of a force required to accelerate 1 kg of a body by 1 ms 2
1 N = 1 kg x 1 ms = 1 kg ms 2
2

4. Hence k is 1. The formula becomes : F = ma

Jerak pulls a block of ice on a smooth surface with a force, F. the ice has a mass of 80 kg. (a) If the force F = 160 N, calculate the acceleration of the ice. (b) If the velocity of the ice changes from 0 to 8 m/s in 5 s, calculate the force, F. Solution: (a) m = 80 kg, F = 160 N using F = ma a = F/m = 160/80 = 2 ms-2 (b) Acceleration, a = v-u t =80 5 = 1.6 ms-2 F = ma = 80(1.6) = 128 N

A hawker pushes a tank of water with a horizontal force of 45 N. The total weight of the trolley and water tank is equal to 900 N. Calculate: (a) The total frictional force if the hawker moves with uniform velocity of 5 m/s. (b) The acceleration of the hawker if the total frictional force is equal to 30 N. Solution: (a) When the velocity is constant, the net external force F=0 therefore the magnitude of the frictional force = 45 N. (b) The net force, F = 45 30 = 15 N a = F/m = 15/90 = 1/6 ms 2

Figure above shows a car travelling on a level road with a uniform Acceleration. Four forces F, FF, FN and FW are acting on the car.
(a) Name the four forces F , FF, FN, and FW (b) Write down the relationship between the magnitudes of (i) F and FF (ii) FN and FW

A car with a mass of 1560 kg decelerates from a velocity of 22.5 m/s to a stop in front of a traffic light. The time taken for the acceleration is 4.5 s. (a) Calculate the deceleration (b) What is the net force needed to give this deceleration. Solution: (a) a = v u t = 0 22.5 4.5 2 = - 5.0ms (b) F = ma = 1560 (-5) = - 7800 N (the ve force shows that the force is acting against the direction of the car)

2.4.3 Impulse and Impulsive Force 1. Impulse is defined as the change of momentum. 2. From F = ma = m (v-u) t = mv mu t Ft = mv mu 3. Impulse is the product of the force F acting on a body and the time t for which the force acts. Hence, impulse = Ft = mv mu 4. The SI unit of impulse is kgms 1 or Ns.

5. Impulsive force is the rate of change of momentum.

Impulsive force = Impulse Time F = mv mu t

6. The SI unit of impulsive force is kgms 2 7. In a collision, the time interval of the action of the force is the impulsive force.

Example:
u2 = 3 m/s u1 = 10 m/s v1 = ? v2 = 6 m/s

Figure above shows the conditions before and after the collision of two objects. Determine. (a) The velocity, v (b) The impulse of collision for the object with mass m1. (c) The impulse of collision for the object with mass m2. (d) The impulsive force if the time of collision is 2 seconds.

(a) m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 1(10) +5 (3) = 1 v1 + 5 (6) v1 = -5 m/s

(b) Impulse m1 = change of momentum Ft = m1v1 m 1 u1 = m1 (v1 u1) = 1 (-5 -10) = -15 Ns

(c) Impulse m2 = m2v2 m2u2 Ft = m2 (v2 u2) = 5 (6 3) = 15 Ns

(d) Impulsive force = impulse time = 15 2 = 7.5 N

Figure below shows a boy kicking a football and a rock.

1 ms (a) When the kicks the 1.2 kg football, it moves from rest to 15

in 0.1s. Calculate the impulsive force exerted on the ball. (b) The boy then kicks a rock of the same mass and it moves from 1 rest to 15ms . However, due to the rigidity of the rock, the time which the foot acts on the stone is only 0.01s. What is impulsive force exerted on the stone? (c) From the answers in (a) and (b), what is the relationship between the time of impact and the impulsive force?

(a) Impulsive force, F = mv mu t = 1.2(15) 1.2(0) 0.1 = 180 N

(b) Impulsive force, F = mv mu t = 1.2(15) 1.2(0) 0.01 = 1800 N (c) The shorter the time of impact, the bigger the impulsive force.

2.4.4 Situations Involving Impulsive Forces The Effects of Time on an Impulsive Force

1. From the formula of impulsive force, we get F = mv mu t This shows that the time of action is very important factor in the calculation of the impulsive force. 2. When the time of action is prolonged, the impulsive force will decrease. 3. On the other hand, if the time of action is shortened, the impulsive force will increase.

Ways to Reduce Impulsive Force

Bending the Legs

When we jumping from the high position, we has to bend our legs to reduce injury. When we bends our legs, the time of action (time taken to land on the ground) will be prolonged. This will decrease the impulsive force because The rate of change of momentum is reduced.

Using a Carpet

(a) Thick carpet

(b) Concrete floor

-The egg that lands on the concrete floor undergoes a big change in momentum (short time of action) -This increases the impulsive force on the egg and breaks the egg. - Meanwhile, the egg that lands on the carpet does not break. This is due to the long time of action as the thick carpet slows down the motion of the egg. -Hence, the impulsive force that acts on the egg is decreased and the egg does not break.

HOT TIPS!! Impulsive Force, F = mv mu t

Small t, big F = more painful

Big , small F = less painful

Problem involving Force, Mass and Acceleration.

1. A box of mass 3 kg is put on a smooth floor. The box is pulled horizontally with a force. What is the acceleration of the box? 3 kg Solution: F = 3N, m = 3 kg F =ma a = F/m = 3/3 2 = 1 ms 3N

2.

Object A 9 kg

Object B
3 kg 15 N

Object A of mass 9 kg and object B of mass 3 kg are tied together with a light string and placed on a smooth surface. The objects are pulled with a 15N force. (a) What is the acceleration of the objects? (b) What is the tension of the string between the two objects? Solution: (a) Assume that force T2 acts on the combined masses of 9kg and 3kg. 9 kg+ 3kg T2 = 15 N

9 kg+ 3kg

T2 = 15 N

Total mass, m = 12 kg F = T2 = 15N F = ma a = F/m = 15/12 2 = 1.25 ms

(b) Consider the object of mass 9 kg and the force T, that pulls the object to the front.
9 kg
a = 1.25 ms
2

T1

F = T1 m = 9 kg 2 ms a = 1.25

F = ma T1 = 9 (1.25) = 11.25 N

3.
3 kg

T2

2 kg

T1

5 kg

20N

Figure above shows three trolleys of mass 3 kg, 2 kg, and 5kg respectively being pulled together along a smooth surface with a force of 20N, using two light strings. The tension of the strings are T1 and T2 respectively. Find.
(a) The acceleration (b) T1 (c) T2

Solution:
(a) Assume that F = 20N, m= 10kg F =ma a = F/m 2 ms =2

(3 + 2 + 5) kg

20N

(b) F =T1 ,a = 2 ms m = (3 +2) kg = 5 kg F = ma = 5 (2) = 10N

(3 + 2) kg

T1

(c) F = T2 a = 2 ms m = 3 kg F = ma = 3(2) = 6N
2

3 kg

T2

According to the Newton's First Law, a moving object will continue moving in a straight line unless external force acted on it. As a result, if you are sitting on braking car, you will keep on moving and been thrown out of the seat due to inertia effect.

Impulsive force is produced during collision according to the Newton's Second Law. If time of impact is reduced, the greater the impulsive force produced causing severe damage to the car.

In making a car safer to drive, engineers have to overcome these two factors that are inertia effect and impulsive force. Here are some safety features incorporated in a car: Safety belt - help to hold the passengers in their position during collision to prevent them from being thrown forward due to inertia. Front and rear crumple zone - easily crushed to increase the time of impact. Shatter-proof windscreen - it will not break into pieces easily. Airbags - to increase the time of impact and to cushion the driver from being hitting the front of the car. Passenger safety case - reinforced to protect passenger. Collapsible steering - to increase the time of collision if the driver crashes against it. ABS braking system - to prevent the car from skidding if sudden brake is applied. Headrests - prevent the passengers from suffering severe neck injury. Padded dashboard - increases time interval of collision so that impulsive force is reduced.

2.8.1

Free Fall and the Acceleration due to Gravity

1. Newton was the first person who studied the force of gravity. He got the inspiration when an apple fell from a tree, hitting his head. 2. In Newton's opinion, the falling apple was acted on by a force of attraction, i.e. the force of attraction due to gravity from the centre of the earth. 3. Any object which falls only under the influence of the force of attraction due to gravity and without any influence of other forces is said to experience free fall.

All objects which experience free fall will fall with the same acceleration, i.e. acceleration due to gravity.

The symbol for the earths acceleration due to 2 ms gravity is g and the unit is (usually g is taken as 10 ms2 )

4. If a coin and feather drop simultaneously from the same position in air (which is not a vacuum), the coin will hit the ground first. 5. This is because the acceleration of the coin is bigger than that of the feather. (a) The air resistance which acts on the feather is higher. (b) Besides the force gravity, there are other factors which act such as air resistance. (c) Therefore, the motion of the coin and that of the feather are not regarded as examples of free fall.

Gravitational Field
1. The force of gravity acts through space and can cause a body which is not in contact with any surface to fall freely to the ground. 2. This is because the earth is surrounded by a gravitational field which exerts a force on any body in the field. 3. The strength of a gravitational field is defined as the gravitational force acting per unit mass on an object in the field. 4. It is denoted by the symbol g. 5. On the Earth, the gravitational field 1 strength, g is 9.81 N kg g = Gravitational force, F Mass of body, m

2.8.2 Weight
1. The weight of an object is defined as the force of gravity acting on the object. 2. The symbol for weight is W, and the SI unit of weight is the newton (N).

Weight, W = mg
where g = the acceleration due to gravity

The differences between mass and weight

Mass, m
The quantity of material contained in an object Scalar quantity The value is constant everywhere on the Earth The SI unit is kg The symbol is m

Weight, W
Gravitational attraction of the earth on the object Vector quantity The value changes according to the gravitational field, g The SI unit is N The symbol is W, where W =mg

The Effects of Gravitational Attraction

(a) If there is no gravitational attraction. we will be floating and hanging from the rooftops of our houses.

(a) Satellite and spaceship is attracted back to the earth.

(b) Moon and satellite orbiting around earth

Motion in the Gravitational Field 1. If an object falls freely, the force of gravity will act on the object. The object will fall with an acceleration known as the acceleration due to gravity, where a = g 2. Kinematics equations can be used to calculate the displacement, time, initial velocity and final velocity of a motion due to free fall. The acceleration is equal to g. 3. The acceleration due to gravity is not influenced by the mass of an object.
m 2m

F/m=g

2F / 2m = g

4. In a calculation, the positive sign + and the negative sign which indicate the direction are important.
(a) An upward motion is taken as + and downward motion is taken as . (b) The acceleration due to gravity is always acting downwards. Hence a always has the value of g or 2 - 10 ms

Example 1:
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 20 m/s. Calculate: (a) The maximum height of the ball (b) The total time the ball is in the air, (take g = 10 ms 2 ) (c) The time to reach a height of 15m (d) The velocity when the ball is at a height of 15m

(a) Let the upward direction be + u = 20 m/s v = 0 m/s 2 ms a = -10 Use

v 2 u 2 2as

h 20m

0 20 2 2(10 )h

(b) u = 20 m/s a = -10 ms 2 s = 0 (the ball returns to the ground) t =?

1 2 s ut at 2
1 0 20t (10)t 2 2
t = 0 or t = 4 s

*The answer is t = 4s ( t=0 is the time when the ball is not yet thrown)

(c) s = 15m u = 20 m/s 2 ms a = -10 t=?

1 2 s ut at 2 1 15 20t (10)t 2 2

t = 1s

t = 3s

t 4t 3 0
2

15m

(t 3)(t 1) 0
t = 3s, t= 1s
There are two instants when the stone is 15m above the ground

(d) s = 15m u = 20 m/s 2 ms a = -10

v = +10m/s t = 1s v = -10m/s t = 3s

v 2 (20 ) 2 2(10 )(15 ) 400 300

v 2 u 2 2as

100

15m

v 100ms 1
10ms 1

Example 2:
A stone is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 30 m/s. Calculate: (a) The time taken for it to reach the maximum height (b) The time taken for the ball to reach a height of 40m from the ground. (Note: there are two instants when the ball is 40m above the ground. First, when it is going up and second when it is descends. Therefore, there are two answer for this question)

1. An object is said to be in a state of equilibrium when the object is : a) At rest (static equilibrium) b) Moving with uniform velocity (dynamic equilibrium) Examples: a) At rest (static equilibrium) - A book at rest on the table is in a state of equilibrium because there is no unbalanced force acting on the book.

- There are two forces acting on the book : a) The weight of the book b) The normal reaction on the table.
- The weight of the book is balanced by the normal reaction of the table. There is no unbalanced force acting on the book. - An object is said to be in the state of equilibrium.

Examples Forces in Equilibrium

Weight = Normal reaction

Buoyant force = Weight

Weight = Tension

Weight = Normal reaction

Examples Forces in Equilibrium

Weight = Normal reaction Pulling force = Frictional force

Weight = Lifting force Driving force = Dragging force

Resultant force
Force is a vector quantity and hence it has magnitude and direction. Two or more forces which act on an object can be combined into a single force called the resultant force. If two forces are in same line, we simply add the forces if both pull or push together; subtract them if one is in the opposite direction

WORK
1. Work is done when a force is exerted to move an object through a distance a distance in direction of the force. 2. Work is define as the product of the force and the displacement of an object in the direction of the force. Work = F s where F = force acting s = the displacement (distance travelled)

Work is a scalar quantity and its unit is the joule (J) or Nm. 1 Joule = 1 Nm
3. 1 joule is the work done when a force of 1 Newton moves an object for 1 meter in the direction of the force. 4. Work is not done when a force is exerted on an object but the force does not move.

ENERGY
1. 2. 3. 4.

We need energy to do work. Energy is defined as the potential or the ability to do work. Energy is a scalar quantity (J) or Nm. Energy can exist in various forms such as potential energy, kinetic energy, heat energy, electrical energy and sound energy. 5. Energy cannot be created and destroyed. The work is related to the change of the form of the energy.
F

W = area under graph

POWER When the weight is lifted quickly, work is done over a shorter period of time. Tom is said to generate a higher power, that is, he does a greater amount of work than Ali every 1 second. Power is defined as the rate at which work is done, or the amount of work done per second.
Power = Work Done
SI unit is J/S or Watt Time Taken P = W = Fs = Fv t t

650 J of thermal energy and sound energy

350 J of kinetic energy

EFFICIENCY The engine of the car transforms the chemical energy of the petrol into kinetic energy of the vehicle. The kinetic energy of the car useful energy output of the car engine Thermal and sound energy - unwanted energy Unwanted energy

Energy Input, E input

Device/ machine

Useful Energy, E Output

Efficiency = Useful energy output Energy input

X 100%

So, what is the efficiency of the car engine??? Efficiency =

350 X 100% 1000 = 35%

REMEMBER!!!

WHEN AN ENERGY TRANSFORMATION TAKES PLACE, NOT ALL ENERGY IS USED TO DO USEFU WORK. SOME IS CONVERTED INTO HEAT OR OTHER TYPES OF ENERGY.

MAXIMISING EFFICIENCY DURING ENERGY TRANSFORMATION MAKES THE BEST USE OF TH AVAILABLE ENERGY. THIS HELPS TO CONSERVE RESOURCES.

table fall

bounce Floor surface

Elasticity can be defined as the ability of a material to return to its original shape when the force no longer acting on it.

UNDERSTANDING ELASTICITY

Forces can move an object. They cause motion.

Forces can accelerate and decelerate an object. They cause acceleration. Forces can change the shape of an object. They cause deformation.

Object that break rather than stretch are brittle.

Object that change shape permanently when force are applied to it are plastic. Object that return to their original shape when the force acting on them are removed are elastic. e.g.: ruler, spring.

UNDERSTANDING ELASTICITY
Spring change length when a force acts on them.

Forces can stretch a spring. They causes the springs extension.

Forces can compress a spring. They causes the springs compression. When the force are removed, the spring returns to its original shape (elastic). If spring are stretched beyond a certain length, they do not spring back to their original length. This length is called elastic limit.

Determining the Relationship Between Force and Extension of a Spring

LOAD,F/N 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 LENGTH,/cm 15.0 16.5 18.1 19.4 EXTENSION, x/cm

0.4
0.5

21.0
22.5

Plot the load-extension graph for the spring. Observe how extension increases with load. What can you say about it?

x = L - Lo

From the graph, we can see that force is directly proportional to the extension (Hookes law).

The mathematical expression of Hookes law is:

Fx F = kx k=F x = Force, F Extension of spring x = Gradient of the graph of F against x k = spring constant (N/m) x = extended length original length
x/cm

F/N

Gradient = k

So, can you determine what is the spring constant, k ?????

Spring constant, k = gradient = 0.5 N 7.5 cm = 0.0667 N/cm

FACTORS THAT AFFECT ELASTICITY The spring constant is a measure of the stiffness of the spring. A spring with a larger spring constant is harder to extend and is said to be more stiff. The stiffness of a spring depends on its physical characteristics. Different spring has different characteristics.

What physical characteristics does a spring have???

FACTORS THAT AFFECT ELASTICITY

Effect on elasticity Length of Shorter spring Less elastic spring Longer spring More elastic Diameter of Smaller diameter Less elastic spring Larger diameter More elastic Diameter of Smaller diameter More elastic spring wire Larger diameter Less elastic Type of The elasticity changes with the material type of material

Factor

Change in factor

Arrangement of the springs

When n similar springs are arranged in parallel, the total extension becomes nk.

When n springs which are similar are arranged in series, the total extension becomes k/n.

Example: The original length of a spring is 10cm. When the spring is connected to a 100g load, the length of the spring becomes 12cm as shown in system P. What is: (a) The spring constant of P? (b) The extension of system Q where two springs are connected in parallel? (c) The extension of system R where two springs are connected in series?

WHAT HAPPENED WHEN THE SPRING IS STRETCHED??

When the spring is stretched, work is done to move the molecules apart against intermolecular forces. Their positions within the spring have changed and they gain potential energy. Collectively the energy of the molecular become the elastic potential energy/strain energy of the spring.

ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY Can you think of how work done on the spring can be determine from the Force Extension graph?

F/N

x/cm

Potential energy of the spring = work done = area under the graph = 1 Fx 2 Therefore the potential energy stored In stretched spring is given by Ep = 1 Fx but F = kx 2 So, Ep = 1 kx 2