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Concrete Technology VCB 2023

Cement

Learning Outcome

To evaluate the properties of concrete

constituent materials.

Definition
In BS EN 197-1, cement is defined as:

A hydraulic binder, i.e. a finely ground inorganic material which, when mixed with water, forms a paste which sets and hardens by means of hydraulic reactions and processes and which, after hardening, retains its strength and stability even under water.
Factory produced EN 197 cements are given the

designation CEM In British Standards, mixer combinations are given the designation C not CEM

History of Cement
In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a British

(Leeds) stone mason, obtained a patent for a cement he produced in his kitchen. The inventor heated a mixture of finely ground limestone and clay in his kitchen stove and ground the mixture into a powder create a hydraulic cement-one that hardens with the addition of water.

History of Cement
Aspdin named the product Portland

cement because it resembled a stone quarried on the Isle of Portland off the British Coast. With this invention, Aspdin laid the foundation for today's Portland cement industry.
Cement is so fine that one kg of cement contains more than 300 billion grains

Basic Composition

The raw materials required to produce Portland cement are found and exploited in nearly all parts of the world, which is a significant reason for its universal importance as a building material.
Table 1 indicates the standard mineralogical composition of Portland cement and Table 2 indicates its standard chemical composition.

Basic Composition
Table 1 Mineralogical Composition of Portland Cements (Brandt, 1995) Chemical Name tricalcium silicate dicalcium silicate tricalcium aluminate tetracalcium aluminoferite pentacalcium trialuminate calcium sulphate dihydrate Common Name alite belite belite celite Chemical Notation 3CaO.SiO2 2CaO.SiO2 3CaO.Al2O3 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 Abbreviated Mass Contents Notation (%) C3S C2S C3A C4AF 38-60 15-38 7-15 10-18

celite gypsum

5CaO.3Al2O3 CaSO4.2H2O

C4AF CSH2

1-2 2-5

Basic Composition
Gypsum (3.5%) Other (1.5%)

Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (8%)

Tricalcium Aluminate (12%)

Tricalcium Silicate (50%)

Dicalcium Silicate (25%)

Basic Composition
Table 2 Chemical Composition of Portland Cements (Brandt, 1995)

Chemical Name calcium oxide


silicon dioxide aluminium oxide ferric oxides magnesium oxide sulphur trioxide alkaline oxides

Common Name

Chemical Notation CaO


SiO2

Abbreviated Notation C
S

Mass Contents(%) 58-66


18-26

lime
silica

alumina
iron magnesia sulphuric anhydrite alkalis

Al2O3
Fe2O3 + FeO MgO SO3 K2O and NaO2

A
F M S K+N

4-12
1-6 1-3 0.5-2.5 <1

Manufacturing of Cement
Producing a cement that meets specific chemical

and physical specifications requires careful control of the manufacturing process. The first step in the Portland cement manufacturing process is obtaining raw materials. Generally, raw materials consisting of combinations of limestone, shells or chalk, and shale, clay, sand, or iron ore are mined from a quarry near the plant. At the quarry, the raw materials are reduced by primary and secondary crushers. Stone is first reduced to 5-inch size (125-mm), then to 3/4-inch(19 mm). Once the raw materials arrive at the cement plant, the materials are proportioned to create a cement with a specific chemical composition.

Manufacturing of Cement
Type of Manufacturing Wet Process Dry Process - 74% of cement produced Preheater/Precalciner Process

Manufacturing of Cement
Dry Process
In

the dry process, dry raw materials are proportioned, ground to a powder, blended together and fed to the kiln in a dry state. In the wet process, a slurry is formed by adding water to the properly proportioned raw materials. The grinding and blending operations are then completed with the materials in slurry form. After blending, the mixture of raw materials is fed into the upper end of a tilted rotating, cylindrical kiln.

Manufacturing of Cement

Manufacturing of Cement
In the dry process, dry raw materials are

proportioned, ground to a powder, blended together and fed to the kiln in a dry state. In the wet process, a slurry is formed by adding water to the properly proportioned raw materials. The grinding and blending operations are then completed with the materials in slurry form. After blending, the mixture of raw materials is fed into the upper end of a tilted rotating, cylindrical kiln. The mixture passes through the kiln at a rate controlled by the slope and rotational speed of the kiln.

Manufacturing of Cement
Burning fuel consisting of powdered coal or

natural gas is forced into the lower end of the kiln. Inside the kiln, raw materials reach temperatures of 1430oC to 1650oC. At 1480oC, a series of chemical reactions cause the materials to fuse and create cement clinker-grayish-black pellets, often the size of marbles. Clinker is discharged red-hot from the lower end of the kiln and transferred to various types of coolers to lower the clinker to handling temperatures.

Manufacturing of Cement
Cooled clinker is combined with

gypsum and ground into a fine gray powder. The clinker is ground so fine that nearly all of it passes through a No. 200 mesh (75 micron) sieve. This fine gray powder is Portland cement.

Manufacturing of Cement

The Cement is Ready for Market

Cement Standards
BS EN 197-1:2000 (Inc. Amendment No.1:2004)
Composition,

specifications and conformity criteria for common cements

BS EN 197-4:2004
Composition,

specifications and conformity criteria for low early strength blast furnace cements

BS EN 196-series
Methods

of testing cement

Cement Standards
Cements

are factory produced materials primarily conforming to BS EN 197-1 or BS EN 197-4 Some cements, such as Sulphate-resisting Portland cement (SRPC) are however, still covered by residual British Standards There is a wide range of cements ranging from simple Portland cement to Composite cements containing up to three major constituents Cements may be produced by inter-grinding or blending the constituents at the cement works Cements can be CE marked against BS EN 197 standards using BS EN 197-2 Conformity evaluation

Types of Portland Cement


Different types of Portland cement are manufactured to

meet various physical and chemical requirements. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Specification C-150 provides for eight types of Portland cement. BS EN 197-1 specified Five main classes of Portland cement However, Both BS EN and ASTM specified some other types of cements for special functions.

Types of BS EN 197-1Portland Cement


Designation Description CEM I CEM II Portland cement Portland-composite cements including: -Portland-fly ash cement (CEM II/A-V, CEM II/B-V) -Portland-slag cement (CEM II/A-S, CEM II/B-S) -Portland-limestone cement (CEM II/A-L (LL), CEM II/B-L (LL) Blastfurnace cements (CEM III/A, CEM III/B) Pozzolanic cements (CEM IV/A, CEM IV/B) Composite cements

CEM III CEM IV CEM V

How are Cements Designated


Example: Example: CEM CEM II/A-LL II/A-LL 42,5 42,5 N N
CEM II: Portland composite cement A-LL: A signifies low proportion of second constituent (6-20% in this case) L or LL signifies limestone as the second main constituent (LL signifies high purity limestone) 42,5 N: Cement strength class 42,5 Normal strength development Portland-limestone Portland-limestonecement cement

Portland Cement
Portland cement is CEM I NOT

Ordinary Portland cement, OPC or PC


BUT

CEM I

Cement strength Classes (I)


There are three cement strength classes, based on the minimum 28 day mortar prism strength Note: Use of 32,5 comma rather 42,5 than decimal point 52,5 Each class can be subdivided based on early strength development L: Low early strength N: Normal strength development R: High early strength

Cement strength Classes (II)


Strength Class 32,5 N 32,5 R 42,5 N 42,5 R 52,5 N 52,5 R Min. 2 Day 10 10 20 20 30 Min. 7 Day 16 Min. 28 Day 32,5 32,5 42,5 42,5 52,5 52,5 Max. 28 Day 52,5 52,5 62,5 62,5 -

These classes apply to all CEM cements

Cement strength Classes (II)


Strength Class 32,5 L 42,5 L 52,5 L Min. 2 Day 10 Min. 7 Day 12 16 Min. 28 Day 32,5 42,5 52,5 Max. 28 Day 52,5 62,5 -

These Theselow lowearly earlystrength strength classes classesapply apply only onlyto toBS BSEN EN197197- 4 4CEM CEM III IIIcements cements

Low Heat Cement


BS EN 197-1: 2000 (inc. Amendment 1:2004) now covers some low heat cements Low Heat is defined as a characteristic heat of hydration not exceeding 270 J/g (measured at 7 days (EN 196-8) or 41 hrs (EN 196-9)) Low heat cements carry an LH suffix ie:

Example: CEM III/B 32,5N - LH

Minor Additional Constituents (I)


BS EN 197-1 allows for the inclusion of up to 5% by

mass of a minor additional constituent (or mac) in all types of cement A mac is defined as: specially selected inorganic natural mineral materials, inorganic mineral materials derived from the clinker production process or [specified cement] constituents unless they are [already] included as main constituents in the cement Materials typically used as a mac include:
Finely

ground limestone Fly Ash Cement kiln dust (CKD)

Minor Additional Constituents (II)


Cement containing a mac has to meet the same performance criteria as the same cement type and class without a mac
Setting time Strength Soundness/Chemical requirements

In specification terms a CEM cement with a mac is considered to be identical to the same CEM cement without a mac

A CEM I Portland cement with 5% mac is still a Portland cement and will perform in the same way as a similar cement without a mac !

Other Cements
Sulfate-resisting Portland cement: still covered by residual British Standard BS 4027 Low early strength blastfurnace cements: covered by British Standard BS 146:2002 (to be withdrawn Jan 2006) High-alumina cement: still covered by residual British Standard BS 915

These standards will eventually be replaced by new European Standards, but progress on a standard for sulfate-resisting cement is slow

Hydration of Cement
When Portland cement is mixed with water its chemical

compound constituents undergo a series of chemical reactions that cause it to harden (or set). These chemical reactions all involve the addition of water to the basic chemical compounds. This chemical reaction with water is called "hydration". Each one of these reactions occurs at a different time and rate. Together, the results of these reactions determine how Portland cement hardens and gains strength. Tricalcium silicate (C3S). Hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and early strength. Portland cements with higher percentages of C3S will exhibit higher early strength.

Hydration of Cement
Dicalcium silicate (C2S). Hydrates and hardens slowly and is

largely responsible for strength increases beyond one week. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A). Hydrates and hardens quickest. Liberates a large amount of heat almost immediately and contributes somewhat to early strength. Gypsum is added to Portland cement to retard C3A hydration. Without gypsum, C3A hydration would cause Portland cement to set almost immediately after adding water. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF). Hydrates rapidly but contributes very little to strength. Its use allows lower kiln temperatures in Portland cement manufacturing. Most Portland cement colour effects are due to C4AF.

Hydration of Cement
The result of the two silicate hydrations is the

formation of a calcium silicate hydrate (often written C-S-H because of is variable stoichiometry). C-S-H makes up about 1/2 - 2/3 the volume of the hydrated paste (water + cement) and therefore dominates its behavior (Mindess and Young, 1981).

Physical Properties of Cement


Portland cements are commonly characterized by

their physical properties for quality control purposes. Their physical properties can be used to classify and compare Portland cements. The challenge in physical property characterization is to develop physical tests that can satisfactorily characterize key parameters.

Physical Properties of Cement


Keep in mind that these tests are, in general, performed on

"neat" cement pastes - that is, they only include Portland cement and water. Neat cement pastes are typically difficult to handle and test and thus they introduce more variability into the results. Cements may also perform differently when used in a "mortar" (cement + water + sand). Over time, mortar tests have been found to provide a better indication of cement quality and thus, tests on neat cement pastes are typically used only for research purposes (Mindess and Young, 1981). However, if the sand is not carefully specified in a mortar test, the results may not be transferable.

Physical Properties of Cement


Fineness Fineness, or particle size of Portland cement affects hydration rate and thus the rate of strength gain. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area-to-volume ratio, and thus, the more area available for water-cement interaction per unit volume. The effects of greater fineness on strength are generally seen during the first seven days (PCA, 1988). Fineness can be measured by several methods:

AASHTO T 98 and ASTM C 115: Fineness of Portland Cement by the Turbidimeter. AASHTO T 128 and ASTM C 184: Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by the 150-mm (No. 100) and 75-mm (No. 200) Sieves AASHTO T 153 and ASTM C 204: Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air Permeability Apparatus AASHTO T 192 and ASTM C 430: Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by the 45-mm (No. 325) Sieve

Physical Properties of Cement


Soundness When referring to Portland cement, "soundness" refers to the ability of a hardened cement paste to retain its volume after setting without delayed destructive expansion (PCA, 1988). This destructive expansion is caused by excessive amounts of free lime (CaO) or magnesia (MgO). Most Portland cement specifications limit magnesia content and expansion. The typical expansion test places a small sample of cement paste into an autoclave (a high pressure steam vessel). The autoclave is slowly brought to 2.03 MPa (295 psi) then kept at that pressure for 3 hours. The autoclave is then slowly brought back to room temperature and atmospheric pressure. The change in specimen length due to its time in the autoclave is measured and reported as a percentage. ASTM C 150, Standard Specification for Portland Cement specifies a maximum autoclave expansion of 0.80 percent for all Portland cement types.

The standard autoclave expansion test is: AASHTO T 107 and ASTM C 151: Autoclave Expansion of Portland Cement

Physical Properties of Cement


Setting Time Cement paste setting time is affected by a number of items including: cement fineness, water-cement ratio, chemical content (especially gypsum content) and admixtures. Setting tests are used to characterize how a particular cement paste sets. For construction purposes, the initial set must not be too soon and the final set must not be too late. Additionally, setting times can give some indication of whether or not a cement is undergoing normal hydration (PCA, 1988). Normally, two setting times are defined (Mindess and Young, 1981):

Initial set. Occurs when the paste begins to stiffen considerably. Final set. Occurs when the cement has hardened to the point at which it can sustain some load.

Physical Properties of Cement


These particular times are just arbitrary points used to characterize cement, they do not have any fundamental chemical significance. Both common setting time tests, the Vicat needle and the Gillmore needle, define initial set and final set based on the time at which a needle of particular size and weight either penetrates a cement paste sample to a given depth or fails to penetrate a cement paste sample. The Vicat needle test is more common and tends to give shorter times than the Gillmore needle test. Table 3.14 shows ASTM C 150 specified set times.

Physical Properties of Cement


Test Method
Vicat Gillmore

Set Type
Initial Final Initial

Time Specification
45 minutes 375 minutes 60 minutes

Final

600 minutes

The standard setting time tests are: AASHTO T 131 and ASTM C 191: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle AASHTO T 154: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Gillmore Needles ASTM C 266: Time of Setting of Hydraulic-Cement Paste by Gillmore Needles

Physical Properties of Cement


Strength Cement paste strength is typically defined in three ways: compressive, tensile and flexural. These strengths can be affected by a number of items including: water-cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, type and grading of fine aggregate, manner of mixing and molding specimens, curing conditions, size and shape of specimen, moisture content at time of test, loading conditions and age (Mindess and Young, 1981). Since cement gains strength over time, the time at which a strength test is to be conducted must be specified. Typically times are 1 day (for high early strength cement), 3 days, 7 days, 28 days and 90 days (for low heat of hydration cement). When considering cement paste strength tests, there are two items to consider:

Physical Properties of Cement


Cement mortar strength is not directly related to concrete strength. Cement paste strength is typically used as a quality control measure. Strength tests are done on cement mortars (cement + water + sand) and not on cement pastes.

Physical Properties of Cement


Compressive Strength The most common strength test, compressive strength, is carried out on a 50 mm (2-inch) cement mortar test specimen. The test specimen is subjected to a compressive load (usually from a hydraulic machine) until failure. This loading sequence must take no less than 20 seconds and no more than 80 seconds. Following Table shows ASTM C 150 compressive strength specifications. The standard cement mortar compressive strength test is:

AASHTO T 106 and ASTM C 109: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 50-mm or 2-in. Cube Specimens) ASTM C 349: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using Portions of Prisms Broken in Flexure)

Physical Properties of Cement


Curing Time 1 day 3 days Portland Cement Type II IIA III IIIA 12.4 10.0 (1800) (1450) 10.3 8.3 24.1 19.3 (1500) (1200) (3500) (2800) 17.2 13.8 -(2500) (2000)

I 12.4 (1800) 19.3 (2800)

IA 10.0 (1450) 15.5 (2250)

IV -

V -

8.3 (1200) 6.9 15.2 7 days (1000) (2200) 17.2 20.7 28 days (2500) (3000) Note: Type II and IIA requirements can be lowered if either an optional heat of hydration or chemical limit on the sum of C 3S and C3A is specified

Physical Properties of Cement


Tensile Strength Although still specified by ASTM, the direct tension test does not provide any useful insight into the concretemaking properties of cements. It persists as a specified test because in the early years of cement manufacture, it used to be the most common test since it was difficult to find machines that could compress a cement sample to failure.

Physical Properties of Cement


Flexural Strength Flexural strength (actually a measure of tensile strength in bending) is carried out on a 40 x 40 x 160 mm (1.57-inch x 1.57-inch x 6.30-inch) cement mortar beam. The beam is then loaded at its center point until failure. The standard cement mortar flexural strength test is:

ASTM C 348: Flexural Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars

Specific Gravity Test Specific gravity is normally used in mixture proportioning calculations. The specific gravity of Portland cement is generally around 3.15 while the specific gravity of Portland-blast-furnaceslag and Portland-pozzolan cements may have specific gravities near 2.90 (PCA, 1988). The standard specific gravity test is:

AASHTO T 133 and ASTM C 188: Density of Hydraulic Cement

Physical Properties of Cement


Heat of Hydration The heat of hydration is the heat generated when water and Portland cement react. Heat of hydration is most influenced by the proportion of C3S and C3A in the cement, but is also influenced by water-cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature. As each one of these factors is increased, heat of hydration increases. In large mass concrete structures such as gravity dams, hydration heat is produced significantly faster than it can be dissipated (especially in the center of large concrete masses), which can create high temperatures in the center of these large concrete masses that, in turn, may cause undesirable stresses as the concrete cools to ambient temperature. Conversely, the heat of hydration can help maintain favorable curing temperatures during winter (PCA, 1988). The standard heat of hydration test is:

ASTM C 186: Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement

Physical Properties of Cement


Loss on Ignition Loss on ignition is calculated by heating up a cement sample to 900 - 1000C (1650 - 1830F) until a constant weight is obtained. The weight loss of the sample due to heating is then determined. A high loss on ignition can indicate prehydration and carbonation, which may be caused by improper and prolonged storage or adulteration during transport or transfer (PCA, 1988). The standard loss on ignition test is contained in:

AASHTO T 105 and ASTM C 114: Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic Cement

Application of Different Types of Cement


Portland Cement CEM I CEM I is the cement that has been most commonly used throughout the world in civil engineering and building works. Concretes and mortars made using CEM I are versatile, durable and forgiving of poor construction practice.

Application of Different Types of Cement


Sulphate-Resisting Cements SRPC is normally a low alkali cement which benefits concrete in resisting the alkali silica reaction (ASR). However, it is not the only sulphate-resisting cement available. Various factory-made composite cements are also sulphate-resisting including the generally available CEM II/B-V type of Portland-fly ash cement containing at least 25% of fly ash. Such CEM II/B-V cements are permitted for use in the same wide-range of sulphate exposure conditions as is SRPC and are also low in reactive alkalis. Moreover, SRPC is a type of CEM I cement with a high clinker content, it is no longer manufactured in the UK and is becoming more difficult to source. Consequently, greener sulphate-resisting composite cements will continue to grow in importance.

Application of Different Types of Cement

SRPC is used where precaution against moderate sulphate attack is important, as in drainage structures where sulphate concentrations in groundwater are higher than normal but not unusually severe (Table).
Relative Degree of Sulfate Attack Negligible Positive Severe Very Severe Percentage Water-Soluble Sulfate (as SO4) in Sulfate (as SO4) in Soil Water Samples, Samples ppm 0.00 to 0.10 0.10 to 0.20 0.20 to 2.00 2.00 or more 0 to 150 150 to 1500 1500 to 10,000 10,000 or more Cement Type CEM I SRPC CEM II/B-V CEM II/B-V

Application of Different Types of Cement


Rapid Hardening Portland Cements Rapid hardening versions of CEM I cements are available. The average particle size is smaller in these cements and they gain strength more quickly than do ordinary CEM I types. They generate more heat in the early stages and can be useful in cold weather concreting. However, their principal use is in manufacturing precast concrete units where the high early strength of the concrete permits quick re-use of moulds and formwork.

Application of Different Types of Cement


White Cement
White cement is a Portland cement CEM I made

from specially selected raw materials, usually pure chalk and white clay (kaolin) containing very small quantities of iron oxides and manganese oxides. White cement is frequently chosen by architects for use in white, off-white or coloured concretes that will be exposed, inside or outside buildings, to the public's gaze.

Application of Different Types of Cement


White Cement
White cement is a Portland cement CEM I made

from specially selected raw materials, usually pure chalk and white clay (kaolin) containing very small quantities of iron oxides and manganese oxides. White cement is frequently chosen by architects for use in white, off-white or coloured concretes that will be exposed, inside or outside buildings, to the public's gaze.

Summary
Portland cement, the chief ingredient in cement paste,

is the most widely used building material in the world. In the presence of water, the chemical compounds within Portland cement hydrate causing hardening and strength gain. Portland cement can be specified based on its chemical composition and other various physical characteristics that affect its behavior. Tests to characterize Portland cement, such as fineness, soundness, setting time and strength are useful in quality control and specifications but should not be substituted for tests on PCC.

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