Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cement
Learning Outcome
constituent materials.
Definition
In BS EN 197-1, cement is defined as:
A hydraulic binder, i.e. a finely ground inorganic material which, when mixed with water, forms a paste which sets and hardens by means of hydraulic reactions and processes and which, after hardening, retains its strength and stability even under water.
Factory produced EN 197 cements are given the
designation CEM In British Standards, mixer combinations are given the designation C not CEM
History of Cement
In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a British
(Leeds) stone mason, obtained a patent for a cement he produced in his kitchen. The inventor heated a mixture of finely ground limestone and clay in his kitchen stove and ground the mixture into a powder create a hydraulic cement-one that hardens with the addition of water.
History of Cement
Aspdin named the product Portland
cement because it resembled a stone quarried on the Isle of Portland off the British Coast. With this invention, Aspdin laid the foundation for today's Portland cement industry.
Cement is so fine that one kg of cement contains more than 300 billion grains
Basic Composition
The raw materials required to produce Portland cement are found and exploited in nearly all parts of the world, which is a significant reason for its universal importance as a building material.
Table 1 indicates the standard mineralogical composition of Portland cement and Table 2 indicates its standard chemical composition.
Basic Composition
Table 1 Mineralogical Composition of Portland Cements (Brandt, 1995) Chemical Name tricalcium silicate dicalcium silicate tricalcium aluminate tetracalcium aluminoferite pentacalcium trialuminate calcium sulphate dihydrate Common Name alite belite belite celite Chemical Notation 3CaO.SiO2 2CaO.SiO2 3CaO.Al2O3 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 Abbreviated Mass Contents Notation (%) C3S C2S C3A C4AF 38-60 15-38 7-15 10-18
celite gypsum
5CaO.3Al2O3 CaSO4.2H2O
C4AF CSH2
1-2 2-5
Basic Composition
Gypsum (3.5%) Other (1.5%)
Basic Composition
Table 2 Chemical Composition of Portland Cements (Brandt, 1995)
Common Name
Abbreviated Notation C
S
lime
silica
alumina
iron magnesia sulphuric anhydrite alkalis
Al2O3
Fe2O3 + FeO MgO SO3 K2O and NaO2
A
F M S K+N
4-12
1-6 1-3 0.5-2.5 <1
Manufacturing of Cement
Producing a cement that meets specific chemical
and physical specifications requires careful control of the manufacturing process. The first step in the Portland cement manufacturing process is obtaining raw materials. Generally, raw materials consisting of combinations of limestone, shells or chalk, and shale, clay, sand, or iron ore are mined from a quarry near the plant. At the quarry, the raw materials are reduced by primary and secondary crushers. Stone is first reduced to 5-inch size (125-mm), then to 3/4-inch(19 mm). Once the raw materials arrive at the cement plant, the materials are proportioned to create a cement with a specific chemical composition.
Manufacturing of Cement
Type of Manufacturing Wet Process Dry Process - 74% of cement produced Preheater/Precalciner Process
Manufacturing of Cement
Dry Process
In
the dry process, dry raw materials are proportioned, ground to a powder, blended together and fed to the kiln in a dry state. In the wet process, a slurry is formed by adding water to the properly proportioned raw materials. The grinding and blending operations are then completed with the materials in slurry form. After blending, the mixture of raw materials is fed into the upper end of a tilted rotating, cylindrical kiln.
Manufacturing of Cement
Manufacturing of Cement
In the dry process, dry raw materials are
proportioned, ground to a powder, blended together and fed to the kiln in a dry state. In the wet process, a slurry is formed by adding water to the properly proportioned raw materials. The grinding and blending operations are then completed with the materials in slurry form. After blending, the mixture of raw materials is fed into the upper end of a tilted rotating, cylindrical kiln. The mixture passes through the kiln at a rate controlled by the slope and rotational speed of the kiln.
Manufacturing of Cement
Burning fuel consisting of powdered coal or
natural gas is forced into the lower end of the kiln. Inside the kiln, raw materials reach temperatures of 1430oC to 1650oC. At 1480oC, a series of chemical reactions cause the materials to fuse and create cement clinker-grayish-black pellets, often the size of marbles. Clinker is discharged red-hot from the lower end of the kiln and transferred to various types of coolers to lower the clinker to handling temperatures.
Manufacturing of Cement
Cooled clinker is combined with
gypsum and ground into a fine gray powder. The clinker is ground so fine that nearly all of it passes through a No. 200 mesh (75 micron) sieve. This fine gray powder is Portland cement.
Manufacturing of Cement
Cement Standards
BS EN 197-1:2000 (Inc. Amendment No.1:2004)
Composition,
BS EN 197-4:2004
Composition,
specifications and conformity criteria for low early strength blast furnace cements
BS EN 196-series
Methods
of testing cement
Cement Standards
Cements
are factory produced materials primarily conforming to BS EN 197-1 or BS EN 197-4 Some cements, such as Sulphate-resisting Portland cement (SRPC) are however, still covered by residual British Standards There is a wide range of cements ranging from simple Portland cement to Composite cements containing up to three major constituents Cements may be produced by inter-grinding or blending the constituents at the cement works Cements can be CE marked against BS EN 197 standards using BS EN 197-2 Conformity evaluation
meet various physical and chemical requirements. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Specification C-150 provides for eight types of Portland cement. BS EN 197-1 specified Five main classes of Portland cement However, Both BS EN and ASTM specified some other types of cements for special functions.
Portland Cement
Portland cement is CEM I NOT
CEM I
These Theselow lowearly earlystrength strength classes classesapply apply only onlyto toBS BSEN EN197197- 4 4CEM CEM III IIIcements cements
mass of a minor additional constituent (or mac) in all types of cement A mac is defined as: specially selected inorganic natural mineral materials, inorganic mineral materials derived from the clinker production process or [specified cement] constituents unless they are [already] included as main constituents in the cement Materials typically used as a mac include:
Finely
In specification terms a CEM cement with a mac is considered to be identical to the same CEM cement without a mac
A CEM I Portland cement with 5% mac is still a Portland cement and will perform in the same way as a similar cement without a mac !
Other Cements
Sulfate-resisting Portland cement: still covered by residual British Standard BS 4027 Low early strength blastfurnace cements: covered by British Standard BS 146:2002 (to be withdrawn Jan 2006) High-alumina cement: still covered by residual British Standard BS 915
These standards will eventually be replaced by new European Standards, but progress on a standard for sulfate-resisting cement is slow
Hydration of Cement
When Portland cement is mixed with water its chemical
compound constituents undergo a series of chemical reactions that cause it to harden (or set). These chemical reactions all involve the addition of water to the basic chemical compounds. This chemical reaction with water is called "hydration". Each one of these reactions occurs at a different time and rate. Together, the results of these reactions determine how Portland cement hardens and gains strength. Tricalcium silicate (C3S). Hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and early strength. Portland cements with higher percentages of C3S will exhibit higher early strength.
Hydration of Cement
Dicalcium silicate (C2S). Hydrates and hardens slowly and is
largely responsible for strength increases beyond one week. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A). Hydrates and hardens quickest. Liberates a large amount of heat almost immediately and contributes somewhat to early strength. Gypsum is added to Portland cement to retard C3A hydration. Without gypsum, C3A hydration would cause Portland cement to set almost immediately after adding water. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF). Hydrates rapidly but contributes very little to strength. Its use allows lower kiln temperatures in Portland cement manufacturing. Most Portland cement colour effects are due to C4AF.
Hydration of Cement
The result of the two silicate hydrations is the
formation of a calcium silicate hydrate (often written C-S-H because of is variable stoichiometry). C-S-H makes up about 1/2 - 2/3 the volume of the hydrated paste (water + cement) and therefore dominates its behavior (Mindess and Young, 1981).
their physical properties for quality control purposes. Their physical properties can be used to classify and compare Portland cements. The challenge in physical property characterization is to develop physical tests that can satisfactorily characterize key parameters.
"neat" cement pastes - that is, they only include Portland cement and water. Neat cement pastes are typically difficult to handle and test and thus they introduce more variability into the results. Cements may also perform differently when used in a "mortar" (cement + water + sand). Over time, mortar tests have been found to provide a better indication of cement quality and thus, tests on neat cement pastes are typically used only for research purposes (Mindess and Young, 1981). However, if the sand is not carefully specified in a mortar test, the results may not be transferable.
AASHTO T 98 and ASTM C 115: Fineness of Portland Cement by the Turbidimeter. AASHTO T 128 and ASTM C 184: Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by the 150-mm (No. 100) and 75-mm (No. 200) Sieves AASHTO T 153 and ASTM C 204: Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air Permeability Apparatus AASHTO T 192 and ASTM C 430: Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by the 45-mm (No. 325) Sieve
The standard autoclave expansion test is: AASHTO T 107 and ASTM C 151: Autoclave Expansion of Portland Cement
Initial set. Occurs when the paste begins to stiffen considerably. Final set. Occurs when the cement has hardened to the point at which it can sustain some load.
Set Type
Initial Final Initial
Time Specification
45 minutes 375 minutes 60 minutes
Final
600 minutes
The standard setting time tests are: AASHTO T 131 and ASTM C 191: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle AASHTO T 154: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Gillmore Needles ASTM C 266: Time of Setting of Hydraulic-Cement Paste by Gillmore Needles
AASHTO T 106 and ASTM C 109: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 50-mm or 2-in. Cube Specimens) ASTM C 349: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using Portions of Prisms Broken in Flexure)
IV -
V -
8.3 (1200) 6.9 15.2 7 days (1000) (2200) 17.2 20.7 28 days (2500) (3000) Note: Type II and IIA requirements can be lowered if either an optional heat of hydration or chemical limit on the sum of C 3S and C3A is specified
Specific Gravity Test Specific gravity is normally used in mixture proportioning calculations. The specific gravity of Portland cement is generally around 3.15 while the specific gravity of Portland-blast-furnaceslag and Portland-pozzolan cements may have specific gravities near 2.90 (PCA, 1988). The standard specific gravity test is:
SRPC is used where precaution against moderate sulphate attack is important, as in drainage structures where sulphate concentrations in groundwater are higher than normal but not unusually severe (Table).
Relative Degree of Sulfate Attack Negligible Positive Severe Very Severe Percentage Water-Soluble Sulfate (as SO4) in Sulfate (as SO4) in Soil Water Samples, Samples ppm 0.00 to 0.10 0.10 to 0.20 0.20 to 2.00 2.00 or more 0 to 150 150 to 1500 1500 to 10,000 10,000 or more Cement Type CEM I SRPC CEM II/B-V CEM II/B-V
from specially selected raw materials, usually pure chalk and white clay (kaolin) containing very small quantities of iron oxides and manganese oxides. White cement is frequently chosen by architects for use in white, off-white or coloured concretes that will be exposed, inside or outside buildings, to the public's gaze.
from specially selected raw materials, usually pure chalk and white clay (kaolin) containing very small quantities of iron oxides and manganese oxides. White cement is frequently chosen by architects for use in white, off-white or coloured concretes that will be exposed, inside or outside buildings, to the public's gaze.
Summary
Portland cement, the chief ingredient in cement paste,
is the most widely used building material in the world. In the presence of water, the chemical compounds within Portland cement hydrate causing hardening and strength gain. Portland cement can be specified based on its chemical composition and other various physical characteristics that affect its behavior. Tests to characterize Portland cement, such as fineness, soundness, setting time and strength are useful in quality control and specifications but should not be substituted for tests on PCC.
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